Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630

Walden University Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630-Step-By-Step Guide

This guide will demonstrate how to complete the Walden University Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630 assignment based on general principles of academic writing. Here, we will show you the A, B, Cs of completing an academic paper, irrespective of the instructions. After guiding you through what to do, the guide will leave one or two sample essays at the end to highlight the various sections discussed below.

How to Research and Prepare for Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630                     

Whether one passes or fails an academic assignment such as the Walden University Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630 depends on the preparation done beforehand. The first thing to do once you receive an assignment is to quickly skim through the requirements. Once that is done, start going through the instructions one by one to clearly understand what the instructor wants. The most important thing here is to understand the required format—whether it is APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.

After understanding the requirements of the paper, the next phase is to gather relevant materials. The first place to start the research process is the weekly resources. Go through the resources provided in the instructions to determine which ones fit the assignment. After reviewing the provided resources, use the university library to search for additional resources. After gathering sufficient and necessary resources, you are now ready to start drafting your paper.

How to Write the Introduction for Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630                     

The introduction for the Walden University Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630 is where you tell the instructor what your paper will encompass. In three to four statements, highlight the important points that will form the basis of your paper. Here, you can include statistics to show the importance of the topic you will be discussing. At the end of the introduction, write a clear purpose statement outlining what exactly will be contained in the paper. This statement will start with “The purpose of this paper…” and then proceed to outline the various sections of the instructions.

How to Write the Body for Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630                     

After the introduction, move into the main part of the Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630 assignment, which is the body. Given that the paper you will be writing is not experimental, the way you organize the headings and subheadings of your paper is critically important. In some cases, you might have to use more subheadings to properly organize the assignment. The organization will depend on the rubric provided. Carefully examine the rubric, as it will contain all the detailed requirements of the assignment. Sometimes, the rubric will have information that the normal instructions lack.

Another important factor to consider at this point is how to do citations. In-text citations are fundamental as they support the arguments and points you make in the paper. At this point, the resources gathered at the beginning will come in handy. Integrating the ideas of the authors with your own will ensure that you produce a comprehensive paper. Also, follow the given citation format. In most cases, APA 7 is the preferred format for nursing assignments.

How to Write the Conclusion for Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630                     

After completing the main sections, write the conclusion of your paper. The conclusion is a summary of the main points you made in your paper. However, you need to rewrite the points and not simply copy and paste them. By restating the points from each subheading, you will provide a nuanced overview of the assignment to the reader.

How to Format the References List for Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630                     

The very last part of your paper involves listing the sources used in your paper. These sources should be listed in alphabetical order and double-spaced. Additionally, use a hanging indent for each source that appears in this list. Lastly, only the sources cited within the body of the paper should appear here.

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Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630

A Sample Answer For the Assignment: Week 8: Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630

Appropriate Drug Therapy for a Patient with MDD and a History of Alcohol Abuse

A combination of an antidepressant and a medicine that treats alcohol abuse would probably be the best pharmacological therapy for a patient with MDD and a history of alcohol consumption. As a first-line therapy for MDD, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors like fluoxetine or sertraline are advised. Naltrexone may also be administered to ease alcohol withdrawal symptoms and cravings.

In this patient, antidepressants such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors are not advised since they raise the risk of seizures. Within six to eight weeks of beginning treatment, the patient should see a reduction in symptoms, but it’s crucial to keep up the medication for at least six to twelve months to avoid relapse (Akbar et al., 2018).

Predictors of Late Onset Generalized Anxiety Disorder

1. A past history of depression
2. Ongoing medical issues
3. Trauma or abuse
4. A family history of anxiety disorders

 (Mohammadi et al., 2020).

Potential Neurobiology Causes of Psychotic Major Depression

1. Abnormal activity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
2. Abnormal activity in the noradrenergic system
3. Abnormal activity in the serotonergic system
4. Abnormal activity in the dopaminergic system

(Dean et al., 2017).

Symptoms Required for Major Depression Episode to Occur

1. Persistent feelings of hopelessness or loss of vigor or pleasure
2. Exhaustion or lack of energy
3. Difficulty concentrating or making decisions
4. Changes in appetite or sleeping patterns
5. Feelings of guilt or inadequacy
6. Suicidal or death-related thoughts

(Pykel et al., 2022).

Classes of Drugs That Can Precipitate Insomnia

1. Beta blockers for example Propranolol
2. Corticosteroids for example prednisone
3. Antidepressant, for example

(Bonnet et al, .2021).

References

Akbar, M., Egli, M., Cho, Y. E., Song, B. J., & Noronha, A. (2018). Medications for alcohol use disorders: An overview. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 185, 64-85. doi:        10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.11.007.

Mohammadi, M. R., Pourdehghan, P., Mostafavi, S. A., Hooshyari, Z., Ahmadi, N., & Khaleghi,             A. (2020). Generalized anxiety disorder: Prevalence, predictors, and comorbidity in   children and adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 73, 102234. Doi:            10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102234.

Dean, J., & Keshavan, M. (2017). The neurobiology of depression: An integrated view. Asian      Journal of Psychiatry, 27, 101-111. Doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2017.01.025

Paykel, E. S. (2022). Basic concepts of depression. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, 10(3).      Doi: 10.31887/DCNS.2008.10.3/espaykel

Bonnet, M. H., & Arand, D. L. (2021). Risk factors, comorbidities, and consequences of   insomnia in adults. Up-to-date, Waltham, MA.

Short Answer Assessment

1. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain the appropriate drug therapy for a patient who presents with MDD and a history of alcohol abuse. Which drugs are contraindicated if any, and why? Be specific. What is the timeframe that the patient should see the resolution of symptoms?

For patients with MDD and a history of alcohol abuse, the use of antidepressant medication like nefazodone in conjunction with psychotherapeutic approaches has been proven to be effective (Thom et al., 2019). Nefazodone is a serotonin modulator that has demonstrated a desirable safety profile, high tolerance, and great effectiveness in managing depression among alcohol-dependent patients.

While SSRIs can also be considered, monoamine oxidase inhibitors like bupropion are contraindicated for such patients as alcohol increases the risks of adverse events such as the spiking of the patient’s blood pressure. With the use of nefazodone and multiple psychosocial therapies, the patient is expected to completely manage the MDD symptoms within 6 to 8 weeks.

List 4 predictors of late-onset generalized anxiety disorder.

• Female gender (Park & Zarate, 2019).
• Current phobia
• History of MDD
• Respiratory Disorder

List 4 potential neurobiology causes of psychotic major depression.

• Hypersensitivity to stress (Thom et al., 2019).
• Serotonin dysfunction
• Vulnerability to developing MDD
• Elevated dopamine levels

An episode of major depression is defined as a period lasting at least 2 weeks. List at least 5 symptoms required for the episode to occur. Be specific.

• Reduced energy levels or fatigue (Mullen, 2018).
• Depressed mood
• Anhedonia
• Sleep disturbances
• Feeling of worthlessness

List 3 classes of drugs, with a corresponding example for each class, that precipitate insomnia. Be specific. 

• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)- Zoloft and Prozac (Mullen, 2018)
• Psychostimulants and amphetamines- Adderall and Benzedrine
• Dopamine agonists- ropinirole and lisuride

 References

Mullen, S. (2018). Major depressive disorder in children and adolescents. Mental Health Clinician, 8(6), 275-283. https://doi.org/10.9740/mhc.2018.11.275

Park, L. T., & Zarate Jr, C. A. (2019). Depression in the primary care setting. New England Journal of Medicine, 380(6), 559-568. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMcp1712493

Thom, R., Silbersweig, D. A., & Boland, R. J. (2019). Major depressive disorder in medical illness: a review of assessment, prevalence, and treatment options. Psychosomatic Medicine, 81(3), 246-255. DOI: 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000678

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In 3 or 4 sentences, explain the appropriate drug therapy for a patient who presents with MDD and a history of alcohol abuse. Which drugs are contraindicated if any, and why? Be specific. What is the timeframe that the patient should see the resolution of symptoms?

The first-line treatment for major depressive disorder is usually selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. However, studies showing the efficacy of these medications in individuals with concomitant alcohol use are limited and controversial. According to Ballesta et al. (2019), tricyclic antidepressants such as desipramine and imipramine as well as the serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors such as nefazodone are more effective in treating depression in alcohol use compared to other antidepressants.

Several medications are contraindicated in individuals with alcohol use disorder. For instance, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs due to increased risk of bleeding and peptic ulcers. Additionally, drugs such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, opioids, and benzodiazepines should not be used concurrently with alcohol due to the additive risk of central nervous system depression. According to Sheffler and Abdijadid (2021), patients taking antidepressants may take up to 2 to 6 weeks for an initial improvement of symptoms to be observed. However, complete resolution of symptoms may be observed after 3 to 6 months of treatment.

List 4 predictors of late-onset generalized anxiety disorder.

Generalized anxiety disorder refers to excessive and prolonged anxiety not confined to a distinct fear. According to DeMartini et al. (2019), the principal predictors of a late-onset generalized anxiety disorder include the following;

• Being female
• Recent adverse life events
• Chronic physical conditions including arrhythmias, heart failure, and respiratory disorders
• Mental health disorders including phobias, past generalized anxiety disorder, and depression.

List 4 potential neurobiology causes of psychotic major depression.

Major depression is a chronic debilitating condition whose etiology and pathophysiology are yet to be vividly explored. According to Kaltenboeck and Harmer (2018), the following neurobiological causes of depression have been postulated;

• Dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis with resultant excessive production of cortisol and corticotropin-releasing hormone.
• Decreased levels of monoamine neurotransmitters including serotonin and noradrenaline.
• Polymorphism in the gene that codes for brain-derived neurotrophic factor.
• Abnormal feedback in the striatal dopamine system.

An episode of major depression is defined as a period lasting at least 2 weeks. List at least 5 symptoms required for the episode to occur. Be specific.

According to the DSM-5 criteria for diagnosis of major depression, at least five or more of the following nine symptoms are required with at least one of the symptoms being anhedonia or depressed mood (American Psychiatric Association, 2022).

• Depressed mood
• Anhedonia
• Sleep disturbance
• Feeling of worthlessness
• Loss of energy
• Diminished concentration, and ability to make decisions
• Changes in weight due to changes in appetite
• Psychomotor agitation
• Suicidal ideation

List 3 classes of drugs, with a corresponding example for each class, that precipitate insomnia. Be specific. 

Insomnia can be precipitated by several drugs. The following classes of drugs listed below may precipitate insomnia

• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors antidepressants for example escitalopram.
• Corticosteroids for example methylprednisolone.
• Beta blockers for example metoprolol.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. American Psychiatric Association Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787

Ballesta, A., Alén, F., Rodríguez de Fonseca, F., Gómez de Heras, R., & Orio, L. (2019). Rethinking the use of antidepressants to treat alcohol use disorders and depression comorbidity: The role of neurogenesis. In Antidepressants – Preclinical, Clinical and Translational Aspects. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83743

DeMartini, J., Patel, G., & Fancher, T. L. (2019). Generalized anxiety disorder. Annals of Internal Medicine, 170(7), ITC49–ITC64. https://doi.org/10.7326/AITC201904020

Kaltenboeck, A., & Harmer, C. (2018). The neuroscience of depressive disorders: A brief review of the past and some considerations about the future. Brain and Neuroscience Advances, 2, 2398212818799269. https://doi.org/10.1177/2398212818799269

Sheffler, Z. M., & Abdijadid, S. (2021). Antidepressants. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538182/

Neurons are information messengers with three main parts namely the cell body, axon, and the dendrites (Kringelbach et al., 2020). The cell body is made up of a nucleus and cytoplasm and produces protein required to construct other parts of the neuron. The axon, on the other hand, extends from the cell body and carries signals away from the cell body while the dendrites carry signals toward the cell body and have numerous synapses to receive the signal from nearby neurons.

Upon stimulation, neurons transmit an electrical impulse that passes through the dendrite, to the cell body, axon, axon terminal, and finally, the stimulus is passed (Kringelbach et al., 2020). At the axonal terminal, the axon releases neurotransmitters that depolarize neighboring cells through synapses and by binding to the membrane of the dendrite.

Subcortical Structures

Other structures within the brain are subcortical structures that act as information hubs for the nervous system. Their main role is to relay and modulate information circulating in different areas of the brain. They include the basal ganglia, limbic structures, pituitary gland, and the diencephalon (Malinowski, 2019). 

The limbic systems play a great role in learning and memory addiction.  The systems provide the anatomical substrate for emotions and motivated behaviors, including the circulatory for reward-related events and stress responses. Specifically, the hippocampus is used to mediate a cognitive/spatial form of memory.

It controls learning and declarative memory which covers the memory of facts and events (Malinowski, 2019).  The dorsal striatum also helps in memory by mediating the stimulus-response habit memory. Addiction on the other hand is linked to the limbic system through the orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus (Malinowski, 2019).

In line with motor control, the nigra striatal region offers two anatomically and functionally distinct portions knowns as the substantia nigra pars compacta and the substantia nigra pars reticulata.

Glial Cells

Other essential components in the central nervous system are the glial cells. They include the astrocytes whose role is to maintain the environment for neuronal signaling by controlling the level of neurotransmitters surrounding the synapses (Hirbec et al., 2020). Equally, oligodendrocytes wrap around the axons forming a protective layer called myelin sheath which enhances neuron signaling.

The cells also include microglia, ependymal cells, and radial glial whose roles are clearing dead cells or removing harmful toxins, maintaining homeostasis, and regenerating neurons and other glial cells like astrocytes and oligodendrocytes respectively.

Neuron Communication

Neurons communicate with each other through synaptic transmission. A chemical synapse is registered at the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron (Malinowski, 2019). The dendrite picks up signals and passes the signals down to the axon, into the axon terminals, and into the synapses. The role of the chemical synapse is to transform the electrical signal in the presynaptic cell’s axon into a chemical signal and back into an electrical signal in the postsynaptic cell.

Neuroplasticity

Brain plasticity denotes the ability of the brain to reorganize itself and form new neural connections in response to extrinsic or intrinsic stimuli.  Through axonal sprouting, the undamaged axons develop new nerve endings and reconnect neurons with severed or injured links (Mateos-Aparicio & Rodríguez-Moreno, 2019).

For instance, undamaged brain sites of stroke patients rewire themselves to take over functions of the damaged brain sites. Similarly, the undamaged axons sprout nerve endings that connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neural pathways (Mateos-Aparicio & Rodríguez-Moreno, 2019).   For example, exposing the brain to specific grammatical rules helps it process and develop language.

References

Hirbec, H., Déglon, N., Foo, L. C., Goshen, I., Grutzendler, J., Hangen, E., … & Escartin, C. (2020). Emerging technologies to study glial cells. Glia, 68(9), 1692-1728. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23780

Kringelbach, M. L., Cruzat, J., Cabral, J., Knudsen, G. M., Carhart-Harris, R., Whybrow, P. C., … & Deco, G. (2020). Dynamic coupling of whole-brain neuronal and neurotransmitter systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(17), 9566-9576. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1921475117

Malinowski, M. N. (2019). Anatomy of the brain and brain stem. In Deer’s Treatment of Pain (pp. 49-59). Springer, Cham.

Mateos-Aparicio, P., & Rodríguez-Moreno, A. (2019). The impact of studying brain plasticity. Frontiers in cellular neuroscience, 13, 66. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00066

Criteria	Ratings	Pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeIn 3 or 4 sentences, explain the appropriate drug therapy for a patient who presents with MDD and a history of alcohol abuse. Which drugs are contraindicated, if any, and why. Be specific. What it is the timeframe that the patient should see resolution of symptoms?	13 to >11.0 pts Excellent Point range: 90–100 The response accurately and clearly explains in detail the appropriate drug therapy for a patient who presents with MDD and a history of alcohol abuse…. The response accurately and clearly details which drugs are contraindicated with specific examples…. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail the timeframe that the patient should see resolution of symptoms.   11 to >10.0 pts Good Point range: 80–89 The response accurately explains the appropriate drug therapy for a patient who presents with MDD and a history of alcohol abuse…. The response accurately identifies which drugs are contraindicated with specific examples…. The response accurately explains the timeframe that the patient should see resolution of symptoms.   10 to >9.0 pts Fair Point range: 70–79 The response inaccurately or vaguely explains the appropriate drug therapy for a patient who presents with MDD and a history of alcohol abuse…. The response inaccurately or vaguely identifies which drugs are contraindicated with inaccurate or vague examples…. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains the timeframe that the patient should see resolution of symptoms.   9 to >0 pts Poor Point range: 0–69 The response inaccurately and vaguely explains the appropriate drug therapy for a patient who presents with MDD and a history of alcohol abuse, or is missing…. The response inaccurately and vaguely identifies which drugs are contraindicated with inaccurate examples, or is missing…. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains the timeframe that the patient should see resolution of symptoms, or is missing.	13 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeList four predictors of late onset generalized anxiety disorder.	13 to >11.0 pts Excellent Point range: 90–100 The response accurately and clearly lists in detail four predictors of late-onset generalized anxiety disorder.   11 to >10.0 pts Good Point range: 80–89 The response accurately lists four predictors of late-onset generalized anxiety disorder.   10 to >9.0 pts Fair Point range: 70–79 The response inaccurately or vaguely lists four predictors of late-onset generalized anxiety disorder.   9 to >0 pts Poor Point range: 0–69 The response inaccurately and vaguely lists four predictors of late-onset generalized anxiety disorder, or is missing.	13 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeList four potential neurobiology causes of psychotic major depression.	13 to >11.0 pts Excellent Point range: 90–100 The response accurately and clearly lists in detail four potential neurobiology causes of psychotic major depression.   11 to >10.0 pts Good Point range: 80–89 The response accurately lists four potential neurobiology causes of psychotic major depression.   10 to >9.0 pts Fair Point range: 70–79 The response inaccurately or vaguely lists four potential neurobiology causes of psychotic major depression.   9 to >0 pts Poor Point range: 0–69 The response inaccurately and vaguely lists four potential neurobiology causes of psychotic major depression.	13 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeAn episode of major depression is defined as a period of time lasting at least 2 weeks. List at least five symptoms required for the episode to occur. Be specific.	13 to >11.0 pts Excellent Point range: 90–100 The response accurately and clearly explains in detail at least five symptoms for the episode of major depression to occur…. Specific examples provided fully support the response.   11 to >10.0 pts Good Point range: 80–89 The response accurately explains at least five symptoms for the episode of major depression to occur…. Specific examples provided support the response.   10 to >9.0 pts Fair Point range: 70–79 The response inaccurately or vaguely explains at least five symptoms for the episode of major depression to occur…. Specific examples provided inaccurately or vaguely support the response.   9 to >0 pts Poor Point range: 0–69 The response inaccurately and vaguely explains at least five symptoms for the episode of major depression to occur, or is missing…. Specific examples provided do not support the response, or is missing.	13 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeList 3 classes of drugs, with a corresponding example for each class, that precipitate insomnia. Be specific.	13 to >11.0 pts Excellent Point range: 90–100 The response accurately and clearly lists in detail 3 classes of drugs, with a corresponding example for each class, that precipitate insomnia…. Examples provided fully support the response provided.   11 to >10.0 pts Good Point range: 80–89 The response accurately lists 3 classes of drugs, with a corresponding example for each class, that precipitate insomnia…. Examples provided support the response provided.   10 to >9.0 pts Fair Point range: 70–79 The response inaccurately or vaguely lists 3 classes of drugs, with a corresponding example for each class, that precipitate insomnia…. Examples provided inaccurately or vaguely support the response provided.   9 to >0 pts Poor Point range: 0–69 The response inaccurately and vaguely lists 3 classes of drugs, with a corresponding example for each class, that precipitate insomnia, or is missing…. Examples provided do not support the response provided, or is missing.	13 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeWritten Expression and Formatting – English writing standards: Correct grammar, mechanics, and proper punctuation	5 to >4.0 pts Excellent Point range: 90–100 Uses correct grammar, spelling, and punctuation with no errors.   4 to >3.5 pts Good Point range: 80–89 Contains a few (1 or 2) grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.   3.5 to >2.0 pts Fair Point range: 70–79 Contains several (3 or 4) grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.   2 to >0 pts Poor Point range: 0–69 Contains many (≥ 5) grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors that interfere with the reader’s understanding.	5 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeWritten Expression and Formatting – The paper follows correct APA format for title page, headings, font, spacing, margins, indentations, page numbers, parenthetical/in-text citations, and reference list.	5 to >4.0 pts Excellent Point range: 90–100 Uses correct APA format with no errors.   4 to >3.5 pts Good Point range: 80–89 Contains a few (1 or 2) APA format errors.   3.5 to >2.0 pts Fair Point range: 70–79 Contains several (3 or 4) APA format errors.   2 to >0 pts Poor Point range: 0–69 Contains many (≥ 5) APA format errors.	5 pts
Total Points: 75

Short Answer Assessment

In 3 or 4 sentences, explain the appropriate drug therapy for a patient who presents with MDD and a history of alcohol abuse. Which drugs are contraindicated if any, and why? Be specific. What is the timeframe that the patient should see the resolution of symptoms?

Recent controlled trial findings suggest that the best course of therapy for depression and alcohol dependency that co-occur is the combination of the antidepressant sertraline and the alcohol treatment drug naltrexone (Anker, 2019).Sertraline and naltrexone together have shown full remission of patients’ depressive symptoms and alcohol consumption between 8 to 12 weeks, with an early improvement in symptoms occurring within the first four weeks of usage (Thom et al., 2019).

Antidepressants with an overdose risk, such as nortriptyline, duloxetine, or bupropion, are contraindicated in depressed people with a history of alcohol use(McHugh & Weiss, 2019). Because they may raise the risk of suicide, benzodiazepines are also not recommended.

2. List 4 predictors of late-onset generalized anxiety disorder.
3. Being female
4. A life adverse event that has occurred recently.
5. Having chronic physical medical conditions like heart failure, arrhythmia, respiratory disorders, and dyslipidemia among others.
6. History of mental disorders like depression, phobia, and GAD (Park & Zarate, 2019).
7. List 4 potential neurobiology causes of psychotic major depression.
8. Hypersensitive to stress (Thom et al., 2019).
9. Serotonin deficiency
10. Propensity for major depressive disorder
11. Higher amounts of dopamine
12. An episode of major depression is defined as a period lasting at least 2 weeks. List at least 5 symptoms required for the episode to occur. Be specific.
13. A decline in vigor or fatigue (Mullen, 2018).
14. Depression
15. Anhedonia
16. Sleep issues
17. A feeling of worthlessness
18. List 3 classes of drugs, with a corresponding example for each class, that precipitate insomnia. Be specific. 
19. Dopamine agonists, which include various Parkinson’s disease treatments like pramipexole and apomorphine.
20. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), like sertraline and Prozac (Mullen, 2018).
21. Decongestants and cold medications, such as oxymetazoline and phenylephrine.

References

Anker, J. (2019). Co-Occurring Alcohol Use Disorder and Anxiety: Bridging the Psychiatric, Psychological, and Neurobiological Perspectives. Alcohol Research: Current Reviews, 40(1). https://doi.org/10.35946/arcr.v40.1.03

McHugh, R. K., & Weiss, R. D. (2019). Alcohol Use Disorder and Depressive Disorders. Alcohol Research: Current Reviews, 40(1). https://doi.org/10.35946/arcr.v40.1.01

Mullen, S. (2018). Major depressive disorder in children and adolescents. Mental Health Clinician, 8(6), 275-283.https://doi.org/10.9740/mhc.2018.11.275

Park, L. T., & Zarate Jr, C. A. (2019). Depression in the primary care setting. New England Journal of Medicine, 380(6), 559-568.DOI: 10.1056/NEJMcp1712493

Thom, R., Silbersweig, D. A., & Boland, R. J. (2019). Major depressive disorder in medical illness: a review of assessment, prevalence, and treatment options. Psychosomatic Medicine, 81(3), 246-255.DOI: 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000678‌

Short Answer Assessment   

In 4 or 5 sentences, describe the anatomy of the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron. Include each part of the neuron and a general overview of electrical impulse conduction, the pathway it travels, and the net result at the termination of the impulse. Be specific and provide examples.

Over 100 billion neurons are found in the human brain (Javaid et al., 2020). The axons and dendrites of a neuron are joined to the cell body, which also contains the cell nucleus. All over the body, axon clusters known as nerves can be detected.

Neurons can interact even across a great distance because of their dendrites and axons. Within a neuron, nerve impulses can move quickly due to electrical conduction. It involves a transient electrical fluctuation that travels through the cell body of the neuron, down its dendrites, and out to the end of its axon.     

2. Answer the following (listing is acceptable for these questions):
   • What are the major components that make up subcortical structures?
     1. Cerebellar,
     2. Thalamic structures 
     3. Basal ganglia
     4. Limbic structure (Wilfrid Jänig, 2022).                     
   • Which component plays a role in learning, memory, and addiction?

The limbic structure aids the human body’s ability to learn and remember new knowledge (Wilfrid Jänig, 2022). It is also important in the control of both addiction and cognitive attention.

2. What are the two key neurotransmitters located in the nigra striatal region of the brain that play a major role in motor control?
   1. Dopamine (Skelin et al., 2019).
   2. Gamma-aminobutyricric acid (GABA)
3. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain how glial cells function in the central nervous system. Be specific and provide examples.

The term “glial cells” refers to a variety of glial cell types, such as Schwann cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglial cells, each of which has distinct roles in maintaining the brain’s normal function (Yang & Zhou, 2019). In addition to regulating blood flow, astrocytes also provide neurons with mitochondria and the building blocks for neurotransmitters that drive neuronal metabolism.

In the growth, upkeep, operation, and regeneration of peripheral nerves, Schwann cells are crucial. The production and maintenance of the myelin sheath that covers axons is the primary responsibility of oligodendrocytes. Finally, Microglia are permanent brain cells that control brain growth, neural network maintenance, and injury recovery.

The synapse is an area between two neurons that allows for chemical communication. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain what part of the neurons are communicating with each other and in which direction does this communication occur? Be specific.

The presynaptic neuron is activated to release neurotransmitters when an action potential is triggered at the chemical synapse. Neurotransmitters are in charge of moving information from the presynaptic cleft to the postsynaptic cleft, where it is recognized by another cell. The receiving neuron’s dendrite receives the message from the sending neuron’s axon terminal.

As one axon forms synapses on numerous postsynaptic cells, it can communicate with numerous cells (Stadelmann et al., 2019). As a result, a single neuron can receive messages from other neurons by receiving millions of synaptic inputs from various presynaptic-sending neurons.

In 3–5 sentences, explain the concept of “neuroplasticity.” Be specific and provide examples.

The best way to describe neuroplasticity is as changes in the brain brought on by either intrinsic or external stimuli. These alterations could be beneficial or harmful. In several neurological and mental illnesses, neuroplastic alterations take place (Innocenti, 2022). Neuroplasticity is primarily mediated by two processes. Neuronal regeneration and collateral sprouting encompass ideas like synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis. Moreover, functional reorganization encompasses ideas like vicariation, equipotentiality, and diaschisis.

References

Innocenti, G. M. (2022). Defining neuroplasticity. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-819410-2.00001-1

Javaid, M. A., Schellekens, H., Cryan, J. F., & Toulouse, A. (2020). Evaluation of Neuroanatomy Web Resources for Undergraduate Education: Educators’ and Students’ Perspectives. Anatomical sciences education, 13(2), 237-249. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.1896

Skelin, I., Kilianski, S., & McNaughton, B. L. (2019). Hippocampal coupling with cortical and subcortical structures in the context of memory consolidation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 160, 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2018.04.004

Stadelmann, C., Timmler, S., Barrantes-Freer, A., & Simons, M. (2019). Myelin in the Central Nervous System: Structure, Function, and Pathology. Physiological Reviews, 99(3), 1381–1431. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00031.2018

Wilfrid Jänig. (2022). The Integrative Action of the Autonomic Nervous System. Cambridge University Press. Yang, Q.-Q., & Zhou, J.-W. (2019). Neuroinflammation in the central nervous system: Symphony of glial cells. Glia, 67(6), 1017–1035. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23571

Short Answer Assessment   

In 4 or 5 sentences, describe the anatomy of the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron. Include each part of the neuron and a general overview of electrical impulse conduction, the pathway it travels, and the net result at the termination of the impulse. Be specific and provide examples.

Over 100 billion neurons are found in the human brain (Javaid et al., 2020). The axons and dendrites of a neuron are joined to the cell body, which also contains the cell nucleus. All over the body, axon clusters known as nerves can be detected.

Neurons can interact even across a great distance because of their dendrites and axons. Within a neuron, nerve impulses can move quickly due to electrical conduction. It involves a transient electrical fluctuation that travels through the cell body of the neuron, down its dendrites, and out to the end of its axon.     

2. Answer the following (listing is acceptable for these questions):
   • What are the major components that make up subcortical structures?
     1. Cerebellar,
     2. Thalamic structures 
     3. Basal ganglia
     4. Limbic structure (Wilfrid Jänig, 2022).                     
   • Which component plays a role in learning, memory, and addiction?

The limbic structure aids the human body’s ability to learn and remember new knowledge (Wilfrid Jänig, 2022). It is also important in the control of both addiction and cognitive attention.

2. What are the two key neurotransmitters located in the nigra striatal region of the brain that play a major role in motor control?
   1. Dopamine (Skelin et al., 2019).
   2. Gamma-aminobutyricric acid (GABA)
3. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain how glial cells function in the central nervous system. Be specific and provide examples.

The term “glial cells” refers to a variety of glial cell types, such as Schwann cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglial cells, each of which has distinct roles in maintaining the brain’s normal function (Yang & Zhou, 2019). In addition to regulating blood flow, astrocytes also provide neurons with mitochondria and the building blocks for neurotransmitters that drive neuronal metabolism.

In the growth, upkeep, operation, and regeneration of peripheral nerves, Schwann cells are crucial. The production and maintenance of the myelin sheath that covers axons is the primary responsibility of oligodendrocytes. Finally, Microglia are permanent brain cells that control brain growth, neural network maintenance, and injury recovery.

The synapse is an area between two neurons that allows for chemical communication. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain what part of the neurons are communicating with each other and in which direction does this communication occur? Be specific.

The presynaptic neuron is activated to release neurotransmitters when an action potential is triggered at the chemical synapse. Neurotransmitters are in charge of moving information from the presynaptic cleft to the postsynaptic cleft, where it is recognized by another cell.

The receiving neuron’s dendrite receives the message from the sending neuron’s axon terminal. As one axon forms synapses on numerous postsynaptic cells, it can communicate with numerous cells (Stadelmann et al., 2019). As a result, a single neuron can receive messages from other neurons by receiving millions of synaptic inputs from various presynaptic-sending neurons.

In 3–5 sentences, explain the concept of “neuroplasticity.” Be specific and provide examples.

The best way to describe neuroplasticity is as changes in the brain brought on by either intrinsic or external stimuli. These alterations could be beneficial or harmful. In several neurological and mental illnesses, neuroplastic alterations take place (Innocenti, 2022). Neuroplasticity is primarily mediated by two processes. Neuronal regeneration and collateral sprouting encompass ideas like synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis. Moreover, functional reorganization encompasses ideas like vicariation, equipotentiality, and diaschisis.

References

Innocenti, G. M. (2022). Defining neuroplasticity. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-819410-2.00001-1

Javaid, M. A., Schellekens, H., Cryan, J. F., & Toulouse, A. (2020). Evaluation of Neuroanatomy Web Resources for Undergraduate Education: Educators’ and Students’ Perspectives. Anatomical sciences education, 13(2), 237-249. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.1896

Skelin, I., Kilianski, S., & McNaughton, B. L. (2019). Hippocampal coupling with cortical and subcortical structures in the context of memory consolidation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 160, 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2018.04.004

Stadelmann, C., Timmler, S., Barrantes-Freer, A., & Simons, M. (2019). Myelin in the Central Nervous System: Structure, Function, and Pathology. Physiological Reviews, 99(3), 1381–1431. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00031.2018

Wilfrid Jänig. (2022). The Integrative Action of the Autonomic Nervous System. Cambridge University Press.

Yang, Q.-Q., & Zhou, J.-W. (2019). Neuroinflammation in the central nervous system: Symphony of glial cells. Glia, 67(6), 1017–1035. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23571