Week 1 Assignment: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630

Week 1 Assignment: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630

A Sample Answer For the Assignment: Week 1 Assignment: Short Answer Assessment NURS 6630

1. In 4 or 5 sentences, describe the anatomy of the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron. Include each part of the neuron and a general overview of electrical impulse conduction, the pathway it travels, and the net result at the termination of the impulse. Be specific and provide examples.

According to Javaid et al. (2020), the human brain comprises over 100 billion distinct neurons. The neuron’s cell body harbors the nucleus and serves as the point of attachment for both the dendrites and axons of the neuron. The term “soma” is sometimes used to refer to the cell body, while axon clusters, commonly referred to as nerves in some contexts, can be found throughout the body in various locations. Neurons can interact with one another even when they are separated by large distances, which is made possible by the fact that they contain dendrites and axons. Furthermore, owing to the mechanism of electrical conduction intrinsic to neurons, nerve impulses can propagate at a remarkable pace, marked by a transient electrical oscillation that traverses from the neuronal soma, through its dendrites, and culminates at the terminal end of the axon.

• Answer the following (listing is acceptable for these questions):
  • What are the major components that make up subcortical structures?
    • Basal ganglia: Pertains to a cluster of subcortical nuclei that are primarily accountable for regulating motor control (Wilfrid Jänig, 2022). Additionally, they play a crucial role in executive functions, motor learning, and emotional and behavioral regulation.
    • Limbic structure: The limbic system is responsible for the regulation of motivation, mood, learning, and memory through its intricate network of structures and interconnected regions(Wilfrid Jänig, 2022). The interface between the subcortical structures and the cerebral cortex is located within the limbic system. The limbic system exerts its influence on the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system
    • Thalamic structures: The structure in question comprises four distinct components, namely the thalamus, epithalamus, subthalamus, and hypothalamus. Each of the aforementioned structures plays a crucial role in the survival and optimal operation of the human body (Wilfrid Jänig, 2022). Therefore, it is imperative to familiarize oneself with their anatomy. 
    • Cerebellar: The cerebellum is a neuroanatomical structure situated in the posterior cranial fossa, superior and posterior to the pontomedullary junction, where the spinal cord merges with the brainstem. The aforementioned structure is a significant subcortical entity that has an impact not only on motor function but also potentially on cognitive and emotional processes (Wilfrid Jänig, 2022).                  
  • Which component plays a role in learning, memory, and addiction?

According to Wilfrid Janig (2022), the limbic structure contributes to the capacity of the human body to acquire new information and retain it. Furthermore, it assumes a crucial function in the control of cognitive attention and behaviors that are addictive.

• What are the two key neurotransmitters located in the nigra striatal region of the brain that play a major role in motor control?
  • Dopamine: While the activity of dopaminergic cells cannot directly dictate movements, a recent study conducted on humans has indicated that the consistent levels of dopamine present in the dorsal striatum may contribute to the facilitation of regular motion by encoding the sensitivity to the energy expenditure of a movement (Skelin et al., 2019). This implicit signal can be interpreted as a “motor motivational” cue.
  • Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA): It is widely distributed throughout the nervous system and plays a crucial role in inhibiting the transmission of signals. It is essential for regulating movement, both in the cortex and subcortical regions of the brain.
• In 3 or 4 sentences, explain how glial cells function in the central nervous system. Be specific and provide examples.

The phrase “glial cells” may refer to several different kinds of glial cells, including astrocytes, Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes, and microglial cells all of which have a unique role in ensuring that the brain continues to operate normally (Yang & Zhou, 2019). Astrocytes are responsible for controlling blood flow, as well as supplying neurons with mitochondria and the components necessary to construct neurotransmitters, which are the driving force behind neuronal metabolism. Schwann cells play an essential role in the development, maintenance, functioning, and regeneration of peripheral nerves. Oligodendrocytes are chiefly accountable for the production and upkeep of the myelin sheath that envelops axons within the nervous system while microglia are enduring brain cells that govern brain maturation, the safeguarding of neural networks, and the recuperation from injuries.

• The synapse is an area between two neurons that allows for chemical communication. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain what part of the neurons are communicating with each other and in which direction does this communication occur? Be specific.

When an action potential is generated at the chemical synapse, the neuron at the presynaptic cleft is stimulated, which results in the release of neurotransmitters, which are the molecules that are responsible for transporting information being propagated from the presynaptic gap to the postsynaptic cleft, which is where it is accepted by another cell. The dendrite of the receiving neuron is the one that is responsible for receiving the message from the axon terminal of the transmitting neuron. Because one axon may create synapses on a large number of postsynaptic cells, it can interact with a large number of cells (Stadelmann et al., 2019). As a consequence of this, a single neuron may receive information from the other neurons since it is capable of receiving millions of synaptic inputs from a wide variety of neurons that are responsible for transmitting presynaptic signals.

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• In 3–5 sentences, explain the concept of “neuroplasticity.” Be specific and provide examples.

Neuroplasticity, commonly referred to aseither brain plasticityor neural plasticity, denotes a phenomenon wherein the brain encounters adaptive modifications in both functional and structural domains. The nervous system is capable of modifying its activity in response to both internal and external stimuli through the process of restoring its functions, pattern, or connections following events such as cerebrovascular incidents or traumatic brain injuries (Innocenti, 2022). These alterations may be helpful in that they lead to the regeneration of function after an injury, neutral in that there is no change, or pathologically detrimental with the resulting pathological consequences.The notion of neuroplasticity can be deconstructed into two primary mechanisms, which are functional reorganizationand collateral sprouting/neuronal regeneration.

References

Innocenti, G. M. (2022). Defining neuroplasticity. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-819410-2.00001-1

Javaid, M. A., Schellekens, H., Cryan, J. F., & Toulouse, A. (2020). Evaluation of Neuroanatomy Web Resources for Undergraduate Education: Educators’ and Students’ Perspectives. Anatomical sciences education, 13(2), 237-249. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.1896

Skelin, I., Kilianski, S., & McNaughton, B. L. (2019). Hippocampal coupling with cortical and subcortical structures in the context of memory consolidation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 160, 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2018.04.004

Stadelmann, C., Timmler, S., Barrantes-Freer, A., & Simons, M. (2019). Myelin in the Central Nervous System: Structure, Function, and Pathology. Physiological Reviews, 99(3), 1381–1431. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00031.2018

Wilfrid Jänig. (2022). The Integrative Action of the Autonomic Nervous System. Cambridge University Press.

Yang, Q.-Q., & Zhou, J.-W. (2019). Neuroinflammation in the central nervous system: Symphony of glial cells. Glia, 67(6), 1017–1035. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23571

Appropriate Drug Therapy for a Patient with MDD and a History of Alcohol Abuse

A combination of an antidepressant and a medicine that treats alcohol abuse would probably be the best pharmacological therapy for a patient with MDD and a history of alcohol consumption. As a first-line therapy for MDD, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors like fluoxetine or sertraline are advised. Naltrexone may also be administered to ease alcohol withdrawal symptoms and cravings. In this patient, antidepressants such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors are not advised since they raise the risk of seizures. Within six to eight weeks of beginning treatment, the patient should see a reduction in symptoms, but it’s crucial to keep up the medication for at least six to twelve months to avoid relapse (Akbar et al., 2018).

Predictors of Late Onset Generalized Anxiety Disorder

1. A past history of depression
2. Ongoing medical issues
3. Trauma or abuse
4. A family history of anxiety disorders

 (Mohammadi et al., 2020).

Potential Neurobiology Causes of Psychotic Major Depression

1. Abnormal activity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
2. Abnormal activity in the noradrenergic system
3. Abnormal activity in the serotonergic system
4. Abnormal activity in the dopaminergic system

(Dean et al., 2017).

Symptoms Required for Major Depression Episode to Occur

1. Persistent feelings of hopelessness or loss of vigor or pleasure
2. Exhaustion or lack of energy
3. Difficulty concentrating or making decisions
4. Changes in appetite or sleeping patterns
5. Feelings of guilt or inadequacy
6. Suicidal or death-related thoughts

(Pykel et al., 2022).

Classes of Drugs That Can Precipitate Insomnia

1. Beta blockers for example Propranolol
2. Corticosteroids for example prednisone
3. Antidepressant, for example

(Bonnet et al, .2021).

References

Akbar, M., Egli, M., Cho, Y. E., Song, B. J., & Noronha, A. (2018). Medications for alcohol use disorders: An overview. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 185, 64-85. doi:        10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.11.007.

Mohammadi, M. R., Pourdehghan, P., Mostafavi, S. A., Hooshyari, Z., Ahmadi, N., & Khaleghi,             A. (2020). Generalized anxiety disorder: Prevalence, predictors, and comorbidity in   children and adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 73, 102234. Doi:            10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102234.

Dean, J., & Keshavan, M. (2017). The neurobiology of depression: An integrated view. Asian      Journal of Psychiatry, 27, 101-111. Doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2017.01.025

Paykel, E. S. (2022). Basic concepts of depression. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, 10(3).      Doi: 10.31887/DCNS.2008.10.3/espaykel

Bonnet, M. H., & Arand, D. L. (2021). Risk factors, comorbidities, and consequences of   insomnia in adults. Up-to-date, Waltham, MA.

In 4 or 5 sentences, describe the anatomy of the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron. Include each part of the neuron and a general overview of electrical impulse conduction, the pathway it travels, and the net result at the termination of the impulse. Be specific and provide examples.

The human brain contains approximately 100 billion neurons. The anatomical structure of the neuron is made up of a cell body, that includes the cell nucleus and the axons, and the dendrites (Camina & Güell, 2017). The dendrites and the axons allow the neurons to communicate across any distance, long or short, through electrical conduction and chemical transmission. The electrical conduction involves a short electrical fluctuation that propagates down the dendrites, through the cell body, and out at the axon terminal. Chemical conduction on the other hand occurs in the synapse between two neurons, enabling the transmission of nerve impulses from one neuron to another.

Answer the following (listing is acceptable for these questions):

What are the major components that make up the subcortical structures?

• Basal ganglia (Javaid et al, 2020).
• Limbic structures
• Pituitary gland
• Diencephalon

Which component plays a role in learning, memory, and addiction?

The limbic structures

What are the two key neurotransmitters located in the nigra striatal region of the brain that play a major role in motor control?

• Gamma-aminobutyricric acid (GABA)
• Dopamine

In 3 or 4 sentences, explain how glia cells function in the central nervous system. Be specific and provide examples.

Glial cells mainly provide supporting functions to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. In the CNS, glial cells are made up of ependymal cells, rapid glial cells, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and astrocytes (Slominski et al., 2017). Microglial cells are responsible for the normal development of the brain in addition to the defense mechanisms, whereas oligodendrocytes are responsible for the production of the myelin sheath which promotes rapid transmission of electrical impulses. Astrocytes play a significant role in maintaining a balance in the chemical environment to control local blood flow and promote oxygenation in addition to maintaining the homeostasis of the brain.

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The synapse is an area between two neurons that allows for chemical communication. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain what part of the neurons are communicating with each other and in which direction does this communication occur? Be specific.

The synapse allows one neuron to send a message to the target neuron in another cell. Communication through the synapse normally occurs by the use of chemical messengers (Durkee & Araque, 2019). However, other synapses are normally electrical where ions flow directly between two cells. At the chemical synapse, the communication occurs by triggering an action potential at the presynaptic neuron releasing neurotransmitters that carry the message to the next neuron.

In 3–5 sentences, explain the concept of “neuroplasticity.” Be specific and provide examples.

Neuroplasticity refers to the ability of the nervous system to alter its activity following intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by recognizing its function, connections, or structure (Innocenti, 2022). Through neuroplasticity, the brain neurons can compensate for disease or injury and adjust their activities in response to the change in environment or the new situation. Neuroplasticity can occur in two main mechanisms, neuronal regeneration/collateral sprouting which is associated with concepts such as neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity, or through functional reorganization which is associated with concepts like diaschisis,  vicariation, and equipotentiality.

 References

Camina, E., & Güell, F. (2017). The neuroanatomical, neurophysiological and psychological basis of memory: Current models and their origins. Frontiers in pharmacology, 8, 438. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00438

Durkee, C. A., & Araque, A. (2019). Diversity and specificity of astrocyte-neuron communication. Neuroscience, 396, 73-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.11.010

Innocenti, G. M. (2022). Defining neuroplasticity. Handbook of clinical neurology, 184, 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819410-2.00001-1

Javaid, M. A., Schellekens, H., Cryan, J. F., & Toulouse, A. (2020). Evaluation of Neuroanatomy Web Resources for Undergraduate Education: Educators’ and Students’ Perspectives. Anatomical sciences education, 13(2), 237-249. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.1896

Slominski, T. N., Momsen, J. L., & Montplaisir, L. M. (2017). Drawing on student knowledge of neuroanatomy and neurophysiology. Advances in physiology education, 41(2), 212-221. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00129.2016

Neurons are information messengers with three main parts namely the cell body, axon, and the dendrites (Kringelbach et al., 2020). The cell body is made up of a nucleus and cytoplasm and produces protein required to construct other parts of the neuron. The axon, on the other hand, extends from the cell body and carries signals away from the cell body while the dendrites carry signals toward the cell body and have numerous synapses to receive the signal from nearby neurons.

Upon stimulation, neurons transmit an electrical impulse that passes through the dendrite, to the cell body, axon, axon terminal, and finally, the stimulus is passed (Kringelbach et al., 2020). At the axonal terminal, the axon releases neurotransmitters that depolarize neighboring cells through synapses and by binding to the membrane of the dendrite.

Subcortical Structures

Other structures within the brain are subcortical structures that act as information hubs for the nervous system. Their main role is to relay and modulate information circulating in different areas of the brain. They include the basal ganglia, limbic structures, pituitary gland, and the diencephalon (Malinowski, 2019). 

The limbic systems play a great role in learning and memory addiction.  The systems provide the anatomical substrate for emotions and motivated behaviors, including the circulatory for reward-related events and stress responses. Specifically, the hippocampus is used to mediate a cognitive/spatial form of memory.

It controls learning and declarative memory which covers the memory of facts and events (Malinowski, 2019).  The dorsal striatum also helps in memory by mediating the stimulus-response habit memory. Addiction on the other hand is linked to the limbic system through the orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus (Malinowski, 2019).

In line with motor control, the nigra striatal region offers two anatomically and functionally distinct portions knowns as the substantia nigra pars compacta and the substantia nigra pars reticulata.

Glial Cells

Other essential components in the central nervous system are the glial cells. They include the astrocytes whose role is to maintain the environment for neuronal signaling by controlling the level of neurotransmitters surrounding the synapses (Hirbec et al., 2020).

Equally, oligodendrocytes wrap around the axons forming a protective layer called myelin sheath which enhances neuron signaling. The cells also include microglia, ependymal cells, and radial glial whose roles are clearing dead cells or removing harmful toxins, maintaining homeostasis, and regenerating neurons and other glial cells like astrocytes and oligodendrocytes respectively.

Neuron Communication

Neurons communicate with each other through synaptic transmission. A chemical synapse is registered at the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron (Malinowski, 2019). The dendrite picks up signals and passes the signals down to the axon, into the axon terminals, and into the synapses. The role of the chemical synapse is to transform the electrical signal in the presynaptic cell’s axon into a chemical signal and back into an electrical signal in the postsynaptic cell.

Neuroplasticity

Brain plasticity denotes the ability of the brain to reorganize itself and form new neural connections in response to extrinsic or intrinsic stimuli.  Through axonal sprouting, the undamaged axons develop new nerve endings and reconnect neurons with severed or injured links (Mateos-Aparicio & Rodríguez-Moreno, 2019).

For instance, undamaged brain sites of stroke patients rewire themselves to take over functions of the damaged brain sites. Similarly, the undamaged axons sprout nerve endings that connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neural pathways (Mateos-Aparicio & Rodríguez-Moreno, 2019).   For example, exposing the brain to specific grammatical rules helps it process and develop language.

References

Hirbec, H., Déglon, N., Foo, L. C., Goshen, I., Grutzendler, J., Hangen, E., … & Escartin, C. (2020). Emerging technologies to study glial cells. Glia, 68(9), 1692-1728. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23780

Kringelbach, M. L., Cruzat, J., Cabral, J., Knudsen, G. M., Carhart-Harris, R., Whybrow, P. C., … & Deco, G. (2020). Dynamic coupling of whole-brain neuronal and neurotransmitter systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(17), 9566-9576. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1921475117

Malinowski, M. N. (2019). Anatomy of the brain and brain stem. In Deer’s Treatment of Pain (pp. 49-59). Springer, Cham.

Mateos-Aparicio, P., & Rodríguez-Moreno, A. (2019). The impact of studying brain plasticity. Frontiers in cellular neuroscience, 13, 66. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00066

The Neuron

Anatomically, the neuron is chiefly composed of the soma, nerve fiber, and dendrites. The cell body consists of organelles including but not limited to mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, nucleus, and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Consequently, the cell body produces energy to propel cellular activities, contains genetic information, and maintains the structure of the nerve cell.

The nerve fiber conveys action potentials away from the cell body while the dendrites carry impulses to the cell body. Neurons have a resting membrane potential which following stimulation results in depolarization and generation of action potential in the form of an impulse. This impulse travels unidirectionally from the soma to the axonal terminal.

Subcortical Structures

Fan et al. (2019) highlight the following as components of subcortical structures;

• Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus
• Hippocampus and amygdala
• Basal ganglia
• Pituitary gland.

Learning, Memory, and Addiction

David et al. (2018) outline the following as components that are involved in learning, memory, and addiction;

• Amygdala
• Prefrontal cortex
• Nucleus accumbens
• Hippocampus
• Dorsal striatum- caudate and putamen

Neurotransmitters in the Substantia Nigra

• Dopamine
• GABA

Glial Cells

Non-neuronal cells of the CNS include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells. Oligodendrocytes myelinate axons in the CNS while astrocytes form the blood-brain barrier, participate in tissue repair, and physically brace the nerve cells (Nirzhor et al., 2018). Ependymal cells are involved in CSF production whereas microglia are the phagocytic cells of the CNS (Nirzhor et al., 2018).

Synapse

Axodendritic synapses transmit impulses between axons and dendrites while axosomatic synapses transmit impulses between nerve fibers and the cell body (Südhof, 2018). Meanwhile, axoaxonic synapses transmit impulses between nerve fibers. Finally, dendrodendritic synapses transmit impulses between dendrites. The action potentials are conveyed from presynaptic to postsynaptic neurons (Südhof, 2018).

Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity involves structural and functional reorganization of the brain in response to injurious external or internal stimuli. Neuronal plasticity encompasses multiple processes including diaschisis, functional reorganization, and synaptic plasticity (Mateos-Aparicio & Rodríguez-Moreno, 2019). These processes facilitate the restoration of function following injurious events such as stroke.

References

David, V., Béracochéa, D., & Walton, M. E. (2018). Editorial: Memory systems of the addicted brain: The underestimated role of cognitive biases in addiction and its treatment. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 30. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00030

Fan, F., Xiang, H., Tan, S., Yang, F., Fan, H., Guo, H., Kochunov, P., Wang, Z., Hong, L. E., & Tan, Y. (2019). Subcortical structures and cognitive dysfunction in first-episode schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research. Neuroimaging, 286, 69–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2019.01.003

Mateos-Aparicio, P., & Rodríguez-Moreno, A. (2019). The impact of studying brain plasticity. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 13, 66. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00066

Nirzhor, S. S. R., Khan, R. I., & Neelotpol, S. (2018). The biology of glial cells and their complex roles in Alzheimer’s disease: New opportunities in therapy. Biomolecules, 8(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/biom8030093

Südhof, T. C. (2018). Towards an understanding of synapse formation. Neuron, 100(2), 276–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.09.040

Short Answer Assessment

As a psychiatric and mental health nurse practitioner, before you can recommend potential pharmacotherapeutics to address a patient’s condition or disorder, you must understand the basic function and structure of the neuron and central nervous system. For this Assignment, you will review and apply your understanding of neuroanatomy by addressing a set of short answer prompts.

To Prepare:

• Review the Learning Resources for this week in preparation to complete this Assignment.
• Reflect on the basic function and structure of the neuron in relation to the central nervous system.
• Reflect on the inter-connectedness between neurons and the central nervous system, including the pathway and distribution of electrical impulses.
• Reflect on how neurons communicate with each other and review the concept of neuroplasticity.

To complete:

Address the following Short Answer prompts for your Assignment. Be sure to include references to the Learning Resources for this week.

1. In 4 or 5 sentences, describe the anatomy of the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron. Include each part of the neuron and a general overview of electrical impulse conduction, the pathway it travels, and the net result at the termination of the impulse. Be specific and provide examples.
2. Answer the following (listing is acceptable for these questions):
   • What are the major components that make up the subcortical structures?
   • Which component plays a role in learning, memory, and addiction?
   • What are the two key neurotransmitters located in the nigra striatal region of the brain that play a major role in motor control?
3. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain how glia cells function in the central nervous system. Be specific and provide examples.
4. The synapse is an area between two neurons that allows for chemical communication. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain what part of the neurons are communicating with each other and in which direction does this communication occur? Be specific.
5. In 3–5 sentences, explain the concept of “neuroplasticity.” Be specific and provide examples.

Resources

Be sure to review the Learning Resources before completing this activity.
Click the weekly resources link to access the resources. 

WEEKLY RESOURCES

By Day 7

Submit your Assignment. 

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Comments:

Great job with your research on this topic. Good start to the term – keep it up.