NSG 604 Module II: Discussion 1 Wilkes University

Wilkes University NSG 604 Module II: Discussion 1 Wilkes University-Step-By-Step Guide

This guide will demonstrate how to complete the Wilkes University NSG 604 Module II: Discussion 1 Wilkes University assignment based on general principles of academic writing. Here, we will show you the A, B, Cs of completing an academic paper, irrespective of the instructions. After guiding you through what to do, the guide will leave one or two sample essays at the end to highlight the various sections discussed below.

How to Research and Prepare for NSG 604 Module II: Discussion 1 Wilkes University                         

Whether one passes or fails an academic assignment such as the Wilkes University NSG 604 Module II: Discussion 1 Wilkes University depends on the preparation done beforehand. The first thing to do once you receive an assignment is to quickly skim through the requirements. Once that is done, start going through the instructions one by one to clearly understand what the instructor wants. The most important thing here is to understand the required format—whether it is APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.

After understanding the requirements of the paper, the next phase is to gather relevant materials. The first place to start the research process is the weekly resources. Go through the resources provided in the instructions to determine which ones fit the assignment. After reviewing the provided resources, use the university library to search for additional resources. After gathering sufficient and necessary resources, you are now ready to start drafting your paper.

How to Write the Introduction for NSG 604 Module II: Discussion 1 Wilkes University                       

The introduction for the Wilkes University NSG 604 Module II: Discussion 1 Wilkes University is where you tell the instructor what your paper will encompass. In three to four statements, highlight the important points that will form the basis of your paper. Here, you can include statistics to show the importance of the topic you will be discussing. At the end of the introduction, write a clear purpose statement outlining what exactly will be contained in the paper. This statement will start with “The purpose of this paper…” and then proceed to outline the various sections of the instructions.

How to Write the Body for NSG 604 Module II: Discussion 1 Wilkes University                       

After the introduction, move into the main part of the NSG 604 Module II: Discussion 1 Wilkes University assignment, which is the body. Given that the paper you will be writing is not experimental, the way you organize the headings and subheadings of your paper is critically important. In some cases, you might have to use more subheadings to properly organize the assignment. The organization will depend on the rubric provided. Carefully examine the rubric, as it will contain all the detailed requirements of the assignment. Sometimes, the rubric will have information that the normal instructions lack.

Another important factor to consider at this point is how to do citations. In-text citations are fundamental as they support the arguments and points you make in the paper. At this point, the resources gathered at the beginning will come in handy. Integrating the ideas of the authors with your own will ensure that you produce a comprehensive paper. Also, follow the given citation format. In most cases, APA 7 is the preferred format for nursing assignments.

How to Write the Conclusion for NSG 604 Module II: Discussion 1 Wilkes University                       

After completing the main sections, write the conclusion of your paper. The conclusion is a summary of the main points you made in your paper. However, you need to rewrite the points and not simply copy and paste them. By restating the points from each subheading, you will provide a nuanced overview of the assignment to the reader.

How to Format the References List for NSG 604 Module II: Discussion 1 Wilkes University                         

The very last part of your paper involves listing the sources used in your paper. These sources should be listed in alphabetical order and double-spaced. Additionally, use a hanging indent for each source that appears in this list. Lastly, only the sources cited within the body of the paper should appear here.

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Share the history of an infectious disease by applying the epidemiologic concepts and principles. When was the infection first recognized? What was thought to be the cause? How did that belief of cause influence response and treatment? When was the true cause determined? How has treatment changed over time?

In your responses to your classmates, share what similarities and differences you see between the infection you presented and your classmate’s. 

Post your initial response by Wednesday at 11:59 PM EST. Respond to two students by Saturday at 11:59 PM EST. The initial discussion post and discussion responses occur on three different calendar days of each electronic week. All responses should be a minimum of 300 words, scholarly written, APA formatted (with some exceptions due to limitations in the D2L editor), and referenced.  A minimum of 2 references are required (other than the course textbook). These are not the complete guidelines for participating in discussions. Please refer to the Grading Rubric for Online Discussion found in the Course Resources module. 

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) dates back to the late 1800s when humans first came into contact with the infection by way of ingesting chimpanzee meat in Central Africa (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2022a). Once the disease spread through Africa, it slowly traveled to the United States and the rest of the world. In the 1960s and 1970s, HIV/AIDS continued to spread, and it is believed that anywhere from 100,000 to 300,000 persons had the disease worldwide (CDC, 2022a)..

AIDS was detected in the United States in June 1981. When it appeared, its determinants were unknown. What was known is that a pattern was developing in which healthy gay men were exhibiting symptoms of severe immunodeficiency, which caused them to contract pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), a rare lung infection, and Kaposi’s Sarcoma (KS), a rare and unusually aggressive cancer. By December 1981, data on the frequency of severe immunodeficiency showed that in the United States, there were 337 cases, and 130 people had died (HIV.gov, n. d.). Of these cases, 16 were children under 13 (HIV.gov, n. d.). The New York Times used Gay-Related Immune Deficiency (GRID) to describe the immunodeficiency in May 1982 (HIV.gov, n. d.). The term heightened the belief that immunodeficiency was a gay disease and caused a backlash against gay men. Homosexuals were condemned and ostracized by right-wing proponents such as Anita Bryant and Jerry Falwell. The negative focus on homosexuals made gay rights stall and caused research concerning immunodeficiency to concentrate on gay men. 

Outbreaks of PCP and KS among gay men in Los Angeles and Orange Counties, California, on June 18, 1982, the CDC announced that the infection was sexually transmitted.  During the International Lesbian & Gay Freedom Day Parade in San Francisco, a gay activist group distributed pamphlets encouraging gay men to have safe sex.  When two otherwise healthy people with hemophilia died due to immunosuppression on September 24, 1982, the term “AIDS,” acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, was coined by the CDC for the condition. The CDC defined AIDS as a defect in cell-mediated immunity without a known cause that lessens resistance in individuals (HIV.gov, n. d.).  In December 1982, after a 20-month-old had blood donated and developed unexplained cellular immunodeficiency and opportunistic infections, it was discovered that one of his donors died from AIDS. The distribution of immunodeficiency now included 20 infants in New York and New Jersey. By January 1983, enough people were exhibiting AIDS that an outpatient AIDS clinic opened in San Francisco. This clinic which treated people with dignity became the model for AIDS healthcare. The same month, according to HIV.gov (n. d.), the first cases of women infected and mother-to-baby transmission became known. Nevertheless, the CDC reported in March 1983 that people most at risk for AIDS were gay men with multiple sex partners, drug injectors, Hattians, and people who receive blood transfusions (HIV.gov, n. d.). 

The number of AIDS cases increased to 1,450, with 558 individuals dying by May 1983 (HIV.gov, n. d.). Finally, in September 1983, the CDC identified the major transmission routes of AIDS, which included gay sexual activity, blood transfusions, and drug injecting, ruling out transmission by casual contact, food, water, air, or environmental surfaces.  At the end of 1983, there were 3,064 cases, and 1,292 died (HIV.gov, n. d.).  It was not until August 1984 that the National Cancer Institute found a retrovirus, which they named HTLV-III, was the cause of AIDS. HTLV-III later became known as HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). The Institute also announced that they created a blood test to identify HTLV-III, promising a vaccine within two years.

The first commercial blood test for HIV licensed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was on March 2, 1985. During that year, Rock Hudson, a famous actor, and Ryan White, an Indiana teenager, announced they had AIDS bringing attention to the disease. Ronald Reagan deemed HIV/AIDS a “top priory” (HIV.gov, n. d.). In September, Congress increased funding for HIV/AIDS research by $70 million for a total allotment of $190 million (HIV.gov, n. d.). By December 1985, there were 217 reported cases of children infected with HIV/AIDS (as of 2022, 60% of these children have died [HIV.gov, n. d.]).  Finally, in 1987 an antiretroviral drug called AZT (zidovudine) designed for cancer treatment was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for AIDS treatment. By then, AIDS had killed more than 60,000 people worldwide, and there were 40,000 HIV-positive people in the United States alone (Takachnov, 2022). At the end of the decade, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported an estimated 400,000 cases of AIDS worldwide, with at least 100,000 in the United States (Takachnov, 2022). Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), a medication to prevent HIV from spreading in the body and mutating into AIDS, was introduced in 1995. With the introduction of HARRT, HIV/AIDS death rates decreased by 47% (Takachnov, 2022).

As of 2020, 38.4 million persons (36.7 million adults and 1.7 million children under 15) worldwide were infected with HIV (HIV.gov, 2022). HARRT still is used to reduce HIV infection in the body to the point that HIV may still be present in a person’s body, but it becomes undetectable. In 2021, 85% of persons were aware that they were HIV positive. Of these persons, 75% were taking HAART medication, and 68% had undetectable because of HARRT medication.

The risk factors for HIV infection are sexual contact, injectable drug use, blood transfusions, needlestick injuries, contaminated body piercing or tattoo equipment, and mother-to-child transmission. However, HARRT is now used to prevent HIV infection, which is more than 90% effective (Eggleton & Nagalli, 2022). In 2021, approximately 1.5 million persons worldwide became newly HIV infected (1.3 million adults and 160,000 children, [HIV.gov, 2022]).  Although people of any age, race, ethnic background or sexual orientation can become infected with HIV, people of color, particularly gay African American men, have been more susceptible to getting infected with HIV. The reasons for this disparity are racism, HIV stigma, homophobia, poverty, and barriers to health care (CDC, 2023). Moreover, since gay men were the first known to get HIV through sexual activity, there is a stigma that HIV is an immoral disease that still exists to this day. 

         One of the difficulties with HIV is symptoms of initial infection are similar to having the flu, which means people can mistake HIV infection for the flu. As a result, without getting tested, it is easy for a person not to recognize being infected with HIV. An estimated 5.9 million people in 2021 did not know they had HIV and needed care (HIV.gov, 2022). For this reason, people must be aware of the risk factors and get tested regularly.

References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, June 30). About HIV. https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/whatishiv.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023, January 10). About HIV. HIV and African American people. https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/racialethnic/africanamericans/index.html #:~:text=Black%2FAfrican%20American%20a%20people%20account%20for%20a%20higher,to%20health%20care%20continue%20to%20drive%20these%20disparities

Eggleton JS, Nagalli S. (2022). Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART). StatPearls. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554533/

HIV.gov. (n. d.). A timeline of HIV and AIDS. https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/overview/ history/hiv-and-aids-timeline#year-1987

HIV.gov. (2022, August 31). Global HIV/AIDS overview. https://www.hiv.gov/federal-response/pepfar-global-aids/global-hiv-aids-overview

Takachnov, M.  (2022, November 30). How AIDS activists fought for patients’ rights. History. https://www.history.com/news/act-up-aids-patient-rights 

History, Transmission, and Treatment of Cholera

   For this discussion, I chose Cholera as my infectious disease topic. Cholera is an acute infectious disease characterized by dehydration, fluid electrolyte imbalances, and watery diarrhea (Merrill, 2021). Cholera was first investigated by John Snow, who was a Physician who served the royal family in England (Merrill, 2021). Dr. Snow began to evaluate Cholera in the mid to late 1840 era after a report of a significant outbreak when the population fell ill after water consumption (Merrill, 2021). His research was based on the premise that the primary source and cause for Cholera arose from dirty drinking water, which was thought to flow through contaminated water pumps (Mackie et al. 2021).   While many organisms are responsible for diseases, the primary organism responsible for Cholera is vibrio cholera (Mackie et al. 2021).    

    Cholera is transmitted differently and includes the aquatic reservoir to host and fecal-oral routes. The aquatic reservoir transmission indicates the organism has survived and replicated outside the human host, which is also identified as primary transmission. In contrast, the fecal-oral route involves the transmission from one human to another and is classified as secondary transmission (Mackie et al. 2021). 

            While Dr. Snow’s research deduced that Cholera was transmitted by drinking water, other causes are evaluated. Other proposed causes of transmission of Cholera can include persons who reside in overcrowded living conditions, as well as those without sufficient water or sanitary conditions, therefore, classifying Cholera that is due to a lack of social development (Mackie et al. 2021). 

            Historically, treatment of Cholera was always fluid replacement (Merrill, 2021). However, while Cholera is known to have the main distinguishing symptom as watery diarrhea, treatment is aimed at fluid replacement and electrolyte replenishment. As a result, the primary treatment is to replace fluids that will replace lost electrolytes with IV fluid with a recommendation to be infused at one liter per hour (Mackie et al. 2021). For severely dehydrated patients, treatment involves oral rehydration and antibiotics if needed (World Health Organization [WHO], 2022). In addition, the population at high risk for developing chorea or is affected when there is an endemic or outbreak should receive vaccinations along with other prevention strategies. Strategies including ensuring patients have complete access to safe water systems and practice adequate hygiene also serve as good health surveillance (WHO, 2022).  

                                                                                    References

Mackie Jensen, P. K., Grant, S. L., Perner, M. L., Hossain, Z. Z., Ferdous, J., Sultana, R., Almeida, S., Phelps, M., & Begum, A. (2021). Historical and contemporary views on cholera transmission: Are we repeating past discussions? Can lessons learned from Cholera be applied to COVID‐19? Apmis, 129(7), 421-430. https://doi.org/10.1111/apm.13102

Merrill, R.M. (2021). Historical developments in epidemiology. In R.M. Merrill (Eds) Introduction to Epidemiology. (9^th ed, pp.17-37) Jones and Bartlett Learning.

World Health Organization. (2022, March 30). Cholera. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cholera

Ebola Virus 

Ebola was first discovered in 1976 during two consecutive outbreaks of hemorrhagic fever were occurring in Central Africa. One outbreak was near Democratic Republic of Congo near the Ebola river, hence where its name came from, the second over 500 miles away in Sudan. Viral and epidemiologic data suggest it had been around long before the outbreaks though. Initially they thought the virus had been spread through a traveler that went from Congo to Sudan, however they uncovered two different virus variations. In Africa the spread of the virus was linked to a fruit bat, possibly the source but that is being studied further. The cases that made it to the United States had come from monkeys that were shipped from the Philippines, letting the scientists know that the virus was in Asia as well.

Learning the mode of transmission was a little more difficult of a task. Initially, it was spread by healthcare that was using the same needles and other equipment on 100’s of patients daily. The healthcare workers were not using the proper PPE either, which also aided in the virus’s spread. By 2014 direct transmission from contact with an affected person (families) or direct contact with a person’s body whom passed from the virus. Once they discovered it was spread with direct contact, they required the use of PPE such as masks, gloves, gowns and disposable equipment. While the measures helped to contain the virus, it did not control the epidemic. 

In a study designed to help them to developed a plan to not only confine but control the outbreak they developed a integrated disease surveillance and response in Sierra Leone. The information collected from the study included “ (1) case identification, (2) reporting of priority diseases, (3) data analysis and interpretation, (4) investigation and confirmation of reported cases and outbreaks, (5) feedback between the district management teams and health facilities and (6) monitoring and evaluation“ (Njuguna et al., 2022). This study had shown that with the surveillance, the reporting, lead to better containment of the virus. As they saw cases rise in a area from the reporting, they could find the cause of the spread and help to stop it. Because it was so successful they developed an electronic version of the tool to make it even easier for healthcare professionals to remain vigilant in reporting. 

Once the endemic was reduced to an outbreak, the studies saw where the system failed in its containment and control of the virus. “ Ebola virus outbreak in West Africa revealed weaknesses in the health systems of the three most heavily effected countries, including a shortage of public health professionals at the local level trained in surveillance and outbreak investigation. In response, the Frontline Field Epidemiology Training Program was created by the CDC as a three month accelerated training program“ (Collins et al., 2022). They have come a long way in dealing with Ebola but the gathering of information and re-evaluation continues to improve the process.  

References

Collins, D., Diallo, B., Bah, M., Bah, M., Standley, C., Corvil, S., Martel, L., & MacDonald, P. (2022). Evaluation of the first two frontline cohorts of the field epidemiology training program in Guinea, West Africa. Human Resources for Health, 20(40), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-022-00729

Njuguna, C., Vandi, M., Squire, J., Kanu, J., Gachari, W., Liyosi, E., Githuku, J., Chimbaru, A., Njeru, I., Caulker, V., Mugagga, M., Sesay, S., Yahaya, A., Talisman, A., Yoti, Z., & Fall, I. (2022). Innovative approach to monitor performance of integrated disease surveillance and response after the Ebola outbreak in Sierra Leone: lessons from the field. BMC Health Services Research, 22, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-022-08627-6