NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2

Chamberlain University NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2-Step-By-Step Guide

This guide will demonstrate how to complete the Chamberlain University NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2  assignment based on general principles of academic writing. Here, we will show you the A, B, Cs of completing an academic paper, irrespective of the instructions. After guiding you through what to do, the guide will leave one or two sample essays at the end to highlight the various sections discussed below.

How to Research and Prepare for NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2                  

Whether one passes or fails an academic assignment such as the Chamberlain University NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2  depends on the preparation done beforehand. The first thing to do once you receive an assignment is to quickly skim through the requirements. Once that is done, start going through the instructions one by one to clearly understand what the instructor wants. The most important thing here is to understand the required format—whether it is APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.

After understanding the requirements of the paper, the next phase is to gather relevant materials. The first place to start the research process is the weekly resources. Go through the resources provided in the instructions to determine which ones fit the assignment. After reviewing the provided resources, use the university library to search for additional resources. After gathering sufficient and necessary resources, you are now ready to start drafting your paper.

How to Write the Introduction for NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2                  

The introduction for the Chamberlain University NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2 is where you tell the instructor what your paper will encompass. In three to four statements, highlight the important points that will form the basis of your paper. Here, you can include statistics to show the importance of the topic you will be discussing. At the end of the introduction, write a clear purpose statement outlining what exactly will be contained in the paper. This statement will start with “The purpose of this paper…” and then proceed to outline the various sections of the instructions.

How to Write the Body for NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2                  

After the introduction, move into the main part of the NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2  assignment, which is the body. Given that the paper you will be writing is not experimental, the way you organize the headings and subheadings of your paper is critically important. In some cases, you might have to use more subheadings to properly organize the assignment. The organization will depend on the rubric provided. Carefully examine the rubric, as it will contain all the detailed requirements of the assignment. Sometimes, the rubric will have information that the normal instructions lack.

Another important factor to consider at this point is how to do citations. In-text citations are fundamental as they support the arguments and points you make in the paper. At this point, the resources gathered at the beginning will come in handy. Integrating the ideas of the authors with your own will ensure that you produce a comprehensive paper. Also, follow the given citation format. In most cases, APA 7 is the preferred format for nursing assignments.

How to Write the Conclusion for NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2                  

After completing the main sections, write the conclusion of your paper. The conclusion is a summary of the main points you made in your paper. However, you need to rewrite the points and not simply copy and paste them. By restating the points from each subheading, you will provide a nuanced overview of the assignment to the reader.

How to Format the References List for NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2                  

The very last part of your paper involves listing the sources used in your paper. These sources should be listed in alphabetical order and double-spaced. Additionally, use a hanging indent for each source that appears in this list. Lastly, only the sources cited within the body of the paper should appear here.

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Sample Answer for NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2 Included After Question

From the U.S. Preventive Task Force website https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/BrowseRec/Index (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site., choose one screening test that might be considered in primary care.

Define the test, its positive predictive value, reliability and validity. Discuss patient medical or family history that may alter your recommendation for screening?

During Week 2, in the Discussion Board and with the HP2020 Impact Paper, you are asked to select a screening or diagnostic tool to analyze.  You are then required to provide a review of the statistics related to the diagnostic tool, for instance sensitivity, specificity and the predictive value of the screening/diagnostic tool.

What do these terms mean exactly? 

In Chapter three (3) of your textbook Curly & Vitale (2016) discuss the implications of screening and the use of the following values (see the section “Screening”):

FAQ:  What is a…?

1. Screening or diagnostic tool:  Instrument used to detect disease in groups of individuals with the goal of reducing and/or preventing morbidity and mortality.  Examples:  Beck’s Depression Screening Tool, Attention Deficit Screening Tool, Pap smear, mammography, colonoscopy, cologuard or the Mini-Nutritional Assessment screening tool (https://www.ncoa.org/center-for-healthy-aging/resourcehub/community-orgs-and-professionals/professional-resources/malnutrition-screening-tools/).

FAQ:  What is the meaning of…?

• Predictive value of a test:  (PV) is a measure of the probability of a positive test result when the disease is present.

              a. Positive predictive value:  The number of the people who test positive who actually have the disease.

              b. Negative predictive value: The number of the people who test negative who truly do not have the disease.

• Sensitivity:  measure of a screening test’s ability to accurately identify disease when it is present. The higher the sensitivity of a tool, the fewer the cases that will go undetected and the greater sensitivity of the tool to detect disease.  For example, in-office tests for influenza or for Beta Hemolytic Strep Throat.  They may be specific to influenza BUT are they also sensitive enough to pick up the organism? 

• Specificity:  measure of a screening test’s ability to correctly identify those with the disease and to exclude the persons who do not have the disease.  The higher the specificity of the screening tool the fewer persons will be incorrectly identified at-risk.  So, this means the test is specific to the organism for instance, to influenza, and that it will be up influenza and not mononucleosis for example, of Beta Hemolytic Strep throat. 

• Validity:  ability of the tool to actually measure what it says it measures.

A Sample Answer For the Assignment: NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2

Title: NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2

A Papanicolaou test or better known as Pap smear testing is a method of cervical cancer screening. It is used to detect cervical epithelial changes that can be pre-cancerous and cancerous (Sachan, Singh, Patel, & Sachan, 2018). There are two forms of cervical screening testing, conventional and liquid-based cytology. There is no clinical or significant difference in the results. As with any testing and results, there can be a potential false-positive or a false-negative. In essence, one is not better than the other. Both methods share the same high accuracy rate. If further testing is needed a colposcopy is performed as the diagnostic test.

Cervical cancer screening consist of cytology (Pap smear) for women with a cervix at ages 21-29 every 3 years and for women 30 to 65 cytology every 3 years or cytology with human papilloma virus (HPV) every 5 years. There has been a large reduction rate of cervical cancers in the United States. Early screening and detection reduces cervical rates 60% to 90% within 3 years of interventions (U.S. Preventive Services Task Force [USPSTF], 2012). Unfortunately, for developing countries cervical cancer is higher due to the lack of knowledge, technology, and experience.

“The overall sensitivity of the Pap test in detecting a high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) is 70.2%. A Pap screening done in association with a HPV DNA test increases the sensitivity for early detection of precancerous lesions” (Sachan, Singh, Patel, & Sachan, 2018). There can be 6 different pap results, I will list the severity in ascending order: negative, atypical squamous cells (ASC-US), low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL), high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL), atypical squamous cells-cannot exclude HSIL (ASC-H), and atypical glandular cells (ACG) (The American College of Obstetrician and Gynecologists [ACOG], 2016). Depending on the results and the patient’s age will depend on if a colposcopy, biopsy, or an endocervical sampling is needed.

Situations that can alter the screening for this patient is having a total hysterectomy (medical history). It is not recommended a pap smear be performed on someone without a cervix due to a lack of cervical precancerous lesions. Another alteration could be if their immediate family member has been diagnosed with cancer early in life (family history). If a patient is HIV positive they may require more frequent screening. Also, the patient’s age. Studies have found screening prior to age 21 and after age 65 with previous normal Pap smear results is not beneficial. The risk outweighs the benefits and can potentially cause physical and/or psychological damage.

Reference

The American College of Obstetrician and Gynecologists. (2016). Abnormal cervical cancer screening test results. Retrieved from https://www.acog.org

Sachan, P.L., Singh, M., Patel, M.L., & Sachan, R. (2018). A study on cervical cancer screening using pap smear test and clinical correlation. Asia-Pacific Journal of Oncology Nursing, 5(3), 337-341.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. (2012). Cervical Cancer: Screening. Retrieved from https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org.

A Sample Answer 2 For the Assignment: NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2

Title: NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2

I enjoy reading your post, it was quite informative. Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally, and was responsible for 8.8 million deaths in 2015. Globally, nearly 1 in 6 deaths is due to cancer (WHO, 2018). Approximately 15% of cancers diagnosed in 2012 were attributed to carcinogenic infections, including Helicobacter pylori, Human papillomavirus (HPV), Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus, and Epstein-Barr virus (Plummer, Martel, Vignat, Ferlay, Bray, & Franceschi, 2016). More specifically, cervical cancer was a known cause of death for American women. However, this rate of death was decreased due to the use of the Pap test (WHO, 2018). It has been my experience that many young women visit the ED with vaginal complaints and have never obtained a Pap smear, let alone visit the gynecologist for these complaints. The challenge as a nurse is educating these young women on the importance of this screening. The views or beliefs held by the young ladies are that they are not in need of this test, embarrassed, or just lack of knowledge. To enable a positive moment where the information presented is grasped by the female patient, the nurse should strive to provide education that stresses the importance of the Pap smear and strategies allowing greater understanding of one’s own body (Plummer et.al, 2016). Additionally, continue to build trust and allow for opportunities to plant the seeds of knowledge. 
Screening aims to identify individuals with abnormalities suggestive of a specific cancer or pre-cancer who have not developed any symptoms and refer them promptly for diagnosis and treatment. Screening programms can be effective for select cancer types when appropriate tests are used, implemented effectively, linked to other steps in the screening process and when quality is assured. In general, a screening program is a far more complex public health intervention compared to early diagnosis.

Examples of screening methods are:
visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) for cervical cancer in low-income settings;
HPV testing for cervical cancer;
PAP cytology test for cervical cancer in middle- and high-income settings; and
mammography screening for breast cancer in settings with strong or relatively strong health systems.

Plummer, M., Martel, C., Vignat, J., Ferlay, J., Bray, F., & Franceschi, S. (2016). Global burden of cancers attributable to infections in 2012: a synthetic analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 4(9):e609-16. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30143-7.

World Health Organization (2018). Cancer. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer on 07/18/2018

A Sample Answer 3 For the Assignment: NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2

Title: NR 503 week 2 discussion screening and reliability 2

The screening test that I chose is Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (DM). Healthy People 2020 (2018) states diabetes is one of the significant public health problems and the 7^th leading cause of death in the United States. At workplace, I even get to see many patients who didn’t control their glucose levels and ended up getting emergency or intensive care units due to high blood sugar levels such as diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) or hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS). The complications of diabetes cause cardiovascular disease, however modifiable cardiovascular risk factor such as abnormal blood glucose is considered to be preventable if the levels of hemoglobin A1c, fasting plasma glucose level, and OGTT are under control (Nathan, 2015). This screening test detects abnormal glucose level by measuring HbA1c, fasting plasma glucose or with an oral glucose tolerance test (USPSTF, 2015). According to data from U.S. Preventive Services (2015), patients with glucose for Hemoglobin A1c level is higher than 6.5%, fasting plasma glucose level is higher than 7.0 mmol/L, and OGTT results is higher than 11.1 mmol/L are often considered positive for diabetes type 2. Positive predictive value (PPV) is the percentage of patients with a positive test who actually have the disease (Gordis, 2014). It tells us how many of test positive are true positives and this number is as close to 100 as possible (Thomas, Parikh, Mathai, Parikh, Sekhar, & Thomas, 2008). If the number is higher, it indicates that the test gives us the correct results. When calculating PPV, sensitivity, and specificity are used. Sensitivity is the ability of a test to correctly classify an individual as ‘diseased’ and specificity is the ability of a test to correctly identify those who do not have the disease (Thomas, Parikh, Mathai, Parikh, Sekhar, & Thomas, 2008). Formula of PPV is True positive / true positive + false positive.

Checking the validity of any screening test is essential to verify the accuracy of the test. Validity is also measured by specificity and sensitivity (Thomas, Parikh, Mathai, Parikh, Sekhar, & Thomas, 2008). A new diagnostic test with the gold standard summarized the validity of tests (2008). True positive (TP) occurs when the test correctly diagnosed the disease and the test is positive. False positive (FP) test happens when the test wrongly diagnosed the disease when the disease is absent. False negative (FN) occurs when the test has incorrectly diagnosed a diseased person as normal. Lastly, true negative (TN) occurs when those who have no disease has also negative with the test.

Let’s say there is a patient who is recently diagnosed with type 2. Upon the patient’s history, a healthcare provider finds out that the patient has a great uncle on his father’s side who died of secondary kidney failure due to uncontrolled blood sugar and an aunt on his mother’s side who died of septic shock due to unhealed infection from lower extremity amputation caused by diabetes. Does this information change my recommendation for screening? I will say no since the great uncle and aunt are not considered as first-degree relative and they are second and third-degree relative. However, family history is essential for the identification of individuals who is at risk for diabetes at a younger age.

Gordis, L. (2014). Epidemiology, 5th Edition. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781455737338/

Healthy People 2020. (2018). Diabetes. Retrieved from https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/diabetes (Links to an external site.)

Nathan, D. M. (2015). Diabetes: Advances in diagnosis and treatment. Jama, 314(10), 1052- 1062. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.9536

Thomas, R., Parikh, R., Mathai, A., Parikh, S., Sekhar, G. C., & Thomas, R. (2008). Understanding and using sensitivity, specificity and predictive values. Indian Journal of Ophthalmology, 56(1), 45-50.

U.S. Preventive Services (USPSTF). (2015). Abnormal Blood Glucose and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Screening. Retrieved from https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/screening-for-abnormal-blood-glucose-and-type-2-diabetes#tab (Links to an external site.)