NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion

Chamberlain University NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion-Step-By-Step Guide

This guide will demonstrate how to complete the Chamberlain University NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion  assignment based on general principles of academic writing. Here, we will show you the A, B, Cs of completing an academic paper, irrespective of the instructions. After guiding you through what to do, the guide will leave one or two sample essays at the end to highlight the various sections discussed below.

How to Research and Prepare for NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion                  

Whether one passes or fails an academic assignment such as the Chamberlain University NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion  depends on the preparation done beforehand. The first thing to do once you receive an assignment is to quickly skim through the requirements. Once that is done, start going through the instructions one by one to clearly understand what the instructor wants. The most important thing here is to understand the required format—whether it is APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.

After understanding the requirements of the paper, the next phase is to gather relevant materials. The first place to start the research process is the weekly resources. Go through the resources provided in the instructions to determine which ones fit the assignment. After reviewing the provided resources, use the university library to search for additional resources. After gathering sufficient and necessary resources, you are now ready to start drafting your paper.

How to Write the Introduction for NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion                  

The introduction for the Chamberlain University NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion is where you tell the instructor what your paper will encompass. In three to four statements, highlight the important points that will form the basis of your paper. Here, you can include statistics to show the importance of the topic you will be discussing. At the end of the introduction, write a clear purpose statement outlining what exactly will be contained in the paper. This statement will start with “The purpose of this paper…” and then proceed to outline the various sections of the instructions.

How to Write the Body for NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion                  

After the introduction, move into the main part of the NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion  assignment, which is the body. Given that the paper you will be writing is not experimental, the way you organize the headings and subheadings of your paper is critically important. In some cases, you might have to use more subheadings to properly organize the assignment. The organization will depend on the rubric provided. Carefully examine the rubric, as it will contain all the detailed requirements of the assignment. Sometimes, the rubric will have information that the normal instructions lack.

Another important factor to consider at this point is how to do citations. In-text citations are fundamental as they support the arguments and points you make in the paper. At this point, the resources gathered at the beginning will come in handy. Integrating the ideas of the authors with your own will ensure that you produce a comprehensive paper. Also, follow the given citation format. In most cases, APA 7 is the preferred format for nursing assignments.

How to Write the Conclusion for NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion                  

After completing the main sections, write the conclusion of your paper. The conclusion is a summary of the main points you made in your paper. However, you need to rewrite the points and not simply copy and paste them. By restating the points from each subheading, you will provide a nuanced overview of the assignment to the reader.

How to Format the References List for NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion                  

The very last part of your paper involves listing the sources used in your paper. These sources should be listed in alphabetical order and double-spaced. Additionally, use a hanging indent for each source that appears in this list. Lastly, only the sources cited within the body of the paper should appear here.

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Sample Answer for NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion Included After Question

You can use this time to have a non-structured conversation about the web site exploration links below. Provide one fact or element from the web site exploration that applies to the topics from the first four modules:

Web Site Exploration:

Institute for Healthcare Improvement (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

IHI Triple Aim (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

Campaign for Action: Fostering Inter-professional Collaboration (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

Purpose:

This discussion board content is intended to facilitate learning for students through engaging dialogues as they achieve the desired learning outcomes/competencies … with their course in a manner that empowers them to organize, integrate, apply and critically appraise their knowledge to their … field of practice.

The use of discussions provides students with opportunities to contribute graduate level-appropriate knowledge and experience to the topic in a safe, caring, and fluid environment that models professional and social interaction. The ebb and flow of a discussion is … upon the composition of student and faculty interaction in the quest for relevant scholarship.

Participation in the discussion generates opportunities for students to actively engage in the written ideas of others by carefully reading, researching, reflecting, and responding to the contributions of their peers and course faculty. Discussions foster the development of members into a community of learners as they share ideas and inquiries, consider perspectives that may be different from their own, and integrate knowledge from other disciplines.

This week we are comparing and contrasting epidemiological methods of research; case-control and cohort study methods. Select either the case-control or cohort study method and compare its features, the methodology, to a … trial using the following questions. Please format, organize, your responses using each question below:

1. What is the fundamental difference between the method you have chosen (either the case-control or cohort method) and the randomized controlled trial?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the study method you chose (casecontrol or cohort study)?
3. What are the characteristics of a correlational study?
4. Where does the method you chose (case-control or cohort study) fall on the research pyramid? What does where it is on the research pyramid mean?

Post your response to the DB. Your analysis should have in-text citations and utilize a scholarly voice with APA formatting.

Respond to a total of two posts: Either two (2) peer posts or a peer and faculty post (all faculty posts require a response), with a minimum of one paragraph of 4-5 sentences, on two (2) different days of the week. Your reply post should … specific to this week’s topic of epidemiological research methods and should integrate in-text citation(s).

Your reply post/s should integrate course content (such as course terminology) … to the study method as well as an integration of in-text citations along with a scholarly voice and APA formatting. The textbook may … as a resource.

A Sample Answer For the Assignment: NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion

Title: NR 503 Population Health, Epidemiology Statistical Principles Week 4 Discussion

Identification of the Health Problem

Chronic conditions have a significant effect on public health. Nurses and other healthcare providers implement evidence-based initiatives to enhance chronic conditions’ prevention, detection, and management. Hepatitis C is an example of a chronic disease with high prevalence globally. Hepatitis C is a viral, blood-borne infection. The global statistics show that about 170 people have the infection. Hepatitis C ranks among the top 15 leading causes of mortalities in the United States. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that mortalities related to hepatitis C infection exceeded those of HIV over the last decade (CDC, 2023). Understanding the hepatitis C disease, its process, surveillance, prevention, and management is crucial for healthcare providers. Therefore, this paper discusses hepatitis C. It focuses on topics that include its background and significance, surveillance and reporting, epidemiological analysis, screening and guidelines, and planning.

Background and Significance

Hepatitis C is the selected chronic infection. Hepatitis C is a viral and blood-borne infection. Hepatitis C exists in acute and chronic forms. The Hepatitis C virus is highly infectious with a prolonged survival period, which increases its potentiality for transmission. Currently, no vaccine exists for use in preventing hepatitis C. A focus is on avoiding its associated risk factors such as sharing equipment used for injection and standard precautions when in environments with a risk of being exposed to blood. Specific groups of people are at risk of being affected by hepatitis C. They include those who share injection equipment, including drug addicts, patients on long-term dialysis, healthcare providers, engaging in unprotected sex with an infected person, and children born to mothers with hepatitis C (CDC, 2023).

People with acute hepatitis do not show any symptoms of hepatitis C. Symptoms develop after a long period of infection because of liver cirrhosis. Patients with hepatitis C present to the hospital with symptoms that include right upper abdominal pain, ascites, clay-colored or pale stools, fatigue, dark urine, itching, jaundice, fever, nausea and vomiting, and loss of appetite. Patients also report easy bleeding and bruising, edema of the lower extremities, weight loss, confusion, slurred speech, drowsiness, and spider angiomas (CDC, 2023).

Hepatitis C is a public health concern in the state of Florida. In 2021, the rate of chronic hepatitis C in Florida was 58.2%. The rate represented 22005 people in the state. The rates vary across the counties in Florida. For example, Bradford County’s rate in 2021 was 20.4% while Broward County had 3.3% in the same year (flhealthcharts.gov, n.d.-b). The prevalence rate of hepatitis C in Florida was 8.2% in 2021. Counties had varying prevalence rates. For example, Bay County had a prevalence rate of 3.8% while Brevard had 1.3% in 2021(flhealthcharts.gov, n.d.-a).

In 2020, the reported cases of newly identified hepatitis C in the United States were 107300. The number represented 40.7% of hepatitis C cases in every 100,000 people. There was an increase in hepatitis C-associated mortalities in 2020 to 3.45 deaths in 100,000 people as compared to 3.33 per 100,000 people in 2019. There were 64% newly reported cases of hepatitis C among men and 66.8% of new cases among women in 2020. The most affected age groups by hepatitis C are 20-39 and 55-70 years (CDC, 2022). After detailed research, the researcher could not find age-specific mortality rates due to hepatitis C in Florida.

Table 1

Hepatitis C Cases in Florida and the USA

	Florida	The United States
Rate	58.2%	40.7%
Mortality rate	–	3.45% in every 100,000 people

Surveillance and Reporting

Surveillance refers to the process of systematic data collection, collation, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination to the involved public health stakeholders for actions to be taken. A surveillance system for any disease has components that include health event detection, investigation and confirmation, data collection, analysis, interpretation, feedback, dissemination of results, and response for prevention and control (Ryerson et al., 2020). Surveillance helps recognize cases of hepatitis C, required interventions, the impact of public health interventions, and the need for additional strategies to prevent its population spread.

The CDC has developed a surveillance system used in the United States for hepatitis C. The CDC provides best practice models that states can adopt for enhanced hepatitis C surveillance. They include case ascertainment and reporting through the creation of an electronic system for collecting and storing hepatitis C test results. States should also have a system for receiving laboratory data and entering into a registry for hepatitis C. The other model for hepatitis C surveillance for use in the United States is the enhanced surveillance system where providers and institutions should consider actions such as establishing outbreak response plans, investigation of random samples, and creation of linkages to care, treatment, and reduction of harm among the priority populations (CDC, 2023).

Case ascertainment for hepatitis C is achievable using laboratory tests that include anti-HCV and HCV detection tests. In addition, total bilirubin and ALT investigations should be ordered to determine if cases are acute or chronic. Mandated reporting is required for hepatitis C. All states require laboratory reporting for acute hepatitis C. The reporting includes laboratory indicators, negative anti-HCV among children aged less than 36 months,and all negative and undetectable HCV RNA results. The complete reporting of all hepatitis tests should include negative hepatitis C results for use in making public health decisions. There is also provider and healthcare facility reporting for hepatitis C diagnoses. The reporting aligns with the CDC/CSTE Position Statement for hepatitis C case definitions (CDC, 2023). Children aged 2-36 months diagnosed with hepatitis C are classified under the Perinatal Hepatitis C category.

Epidemiological Analysis

Hepatitis C is a viral and blood-borne infection that affects the liver. It causes liver inflammation and cirrhosis and associated symptoms. Infection with hepatitis C occurs through exposure to infected blood from unsafe injection practices, poor health care, sexual practices associated with blood exposure, and injection drug use. Chronic hepatitis C develops after acute hepatitis in around 55-85% of the affected populations. Patients affected by hepatitis C experience several symptoms, including fever, chronic fatigue, jaundice, nausea, vomiting, ascites, weight loss, lower limb edema, coma, confusion, drowsiness, dark urine, and abdominal pain. Early diagnosis is crucial for effective treatment, care, and prognosis (WHO, 2023). However, global statistics show that about 19% of the population with hepatitis C knows their disease status.

Everybody is at risk of hepatitis C. However, specific populations are most vulnerable to it. They include health care providers, patients requiring frequent blood transfusions, organ recipients before June 1992, injection drug users, and infants born to mothers infected with the hepatitis C virus. The other groups of people at risk include those with high-risk sexual behavior, sexually transmitted diseases, multiple partners, and those who share razors, toothbrushes, and other items with infected people (CDC, 2023; Parsons, 2022).

Several individual factors influence hepatitis C progression. They include age, sex, ethnicity, existing comorbidities, fatty liver, and alcohol intake. Alcohol intake elevates hepatitis virus replication while fatty liver worsens inflammation and hepatic scarring. Concurrent conditions such as HIV and hepatitis B elevate liver damage. Hepatitis C progression is slower among individuals of African-American backgrounds than among other ethnicities. Males have a high progression of hepatic injury than females while individuals aged 40 years old and above have a high susceptibility to accelerated fibrosis (Parsons, 2022).

All the global populations are at risk of hepatitis C. Global statistics show that around 58 million people have hepatitis C with 1.5 million new cases reported annually. The prevalence rate of hepatitis C is higher in low and middle-income countries when compared to the developed nations. For instance, the prevalence of hepatitis C is less than 2% in developed countries while low-middle-income countries such as Egypt have a 15% prevalence of the infection. Statistics also show that about 3-5 million Americans have hepatitis C (Mukhtar et al., 2019; Parsons, 2022).

Most people infected by hepatitis C virus remain asymptomatic for a period of between two weeks and six months. The virus can also not be detected during this period because of low antibody levels to be detected through the normal tests. Some patients might also have weakened immunity to develop antibodies to be detected for hepatitis C (Parsons, 2022). Therefore, individual factors influence the duration of the infection and the onset of symptoms.

Hepatitis C is a crucial public health concern. Around 58 million people globally have hepatitis C with annual 1.5 million new cases. Hepatitis C is also among the leading causes of liver diseases, including cirrhosis and cancer. It also contributes to about 290000 deaths annually reported around the world (Yang et al., 2023). Hepatitis C is costly to patients, families, healthcare systems, and the country. Patients incur high costs in seeking treatments, frequent hospitalizations, and lose their productivity due to the disease. The government spends enormous resources in treating, diagnosing, and preventing hepatitis C. For example, the government spends an average of $17,178 for non-disabled adults with chronic hepatitis and $17,879 for disabled adults (Roebuck, 2019). Hepatitis C does not have a vaccine. However, treatments using antivirals exist. An effective intervention is educating the public about the prevention, risk factors, and health effects of hepatitis C. Therefore, it makes it an important public health concern.

Screening, Diagnosis, and Guidelines

The diagnosis of hepatitis C is done in two steps. The first step entails testing the patient for anti-HCV antibodies. Providers use a serological test that identifies people exposed to the virus. If the test is positive, a nucleic acid test is done for HCV ribonucleic acid. The anti-HCV antibody test confirms chronic hepatitis C infection. A patient who was infected with the virus will test positive for the anti-HCV antibody test due to a history of exposure to the virus (Bhattacharya et al., 2023). An assessment of the extent of liver damage should be done once a person has tested positive for hepatitis C virus.

The American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases has developed a guideline for testing, managing, and treating hepatitis c infection. The guideline recommends universal screening, a simplified treatment algorithm, and treatment of all vulnerable populations in jail or prison with hepatitis C infection. The guideline also recommends the use of direct-acting antiviral therapy for any patient who is diagnosed with either acute or chronic hepatitis C (Bhattacharya et al., 2023).

The recommended initial treatments for hepatitis C include sofosbuvir/velpatasvir, ledipasvir/sofosbuvir, elbasvir/grazoprevir, sofosbuvir/velpatasvir+weight-based ribavirin, and sofosbuvir/velpatasvir/vaxolaprevir. Patients with decompensated cirrhosis should be treated with sofosbuvir/velpatasvir+ weight-based ribavirin, sofosbuvir/velpatasvir, or ledipasvir/sofosbuvir+weight-based ribavirin. Retreatment with the combinations should be considered if patients show a failed response to treatment. The guideline also has recommendations for special populations such as pregnant women, those with HIV, and children. For example, approved direct-acting antivirals should be used in children with chronic hepatitis C while a case-by-case approach should be adopted for pregnant women (Bhattacharya et al., 2023). Further, the guideline recommends annual screening for all at-risk populations for early detection and management of hepatitis C. Anti-HCV test is used for diagnosing hepatitis C. The test has a sensitivity and specificity of more than 99%. The positive predictive value of the anti-HCV test is 99.7% while its negative predictive value is 87.3% (Liu et al., 2021). Its cost is $147.33.

Plan

A nurse practitioner can address hepatitis C after graduation in several ways. One of the ways in which the nurse practitioner can address it is through health education. Nurse practitioners can empower with knowledge about the causes, effectiveness, prevention, and treatment of hepatitis C. Health education is an effective tool, which will help the population to adopt healthy lifestyles and behaviors that minimize the risk of hepatitis C. It also raises the population’s awareness about the importance of utilizing the available screening services for early detection and treatment of hepatitis C (Bhattacharya et al., 2023). An effective way to measure the effectiveness of health education includes the administration of pre- and post-educational surveys to determine knowledge changes in the population.

The second strategy a nurse practitioner might use to address hepatitis C is screening at-risk populations to identify and initiate early treatments. Screening is an effective tool that can enhance the detection of infected, asymptomatic cases and facilitate timely treatment for improved prognostic outcomes (Day et al., 2019). An effective strategy to measure the effectiveness of screening is comparing the positive rates among the screened populations, treatment uptake rates, and reduction in hepatitis rates in the population.

The last intervention that nurse practitioners can use to address hepatitis is by linking them to existing social support resources. Hepatitis C can be distressing to patients and their significant others. The loss of functional abilities and productivity in social and occupational roles predisposes patients to negative health outcomes and poor quality of life. A nurse practitioner might link them to social support groups for people with illnesses for them to receive the social, psychological, and emotional support that they need to overcome their challenges (Khorvash et al., 2022). An effective approach to measuring the effectiveness of linking patients with social support groups would be undertaking surveys to determine their perceived quality of life before and after being enrolled in the social support groups.

Summary/Conclusion

Hepatitis C is a viral and blood-borne infection with a significant disease burden to the global population. The incidence and prevalence rate of hepatitis C in America and Florida is high. Current surveillance methods are effective in ensuring timely detection; prevention and management of hepatitis C. Nurse practitioners utilize epidemiological analysis to understand hepatitis C better. Nurse practitioners can address hepatitis C through health education, screening, and linking the affected with the existing social support programs and groups for their health and wellbeing.

References

Bhattacharya, D., Aronsohn, A., Price, J., Lo Re, V., III, & the American Association for the        Study of Liver Diseases–Infectious Diseases Society of America HCV Guidance Panel.       (2023). Hepatitis C Guidance 2023 Update: American Association for the Study of Liver         Diseases– Infectious Diseases Society of America Recommendations for Testing, Managing, and Treating Hepatitis C Virus Infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases, ciad319. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciad319

CDC. (2022, September 14). 2020 Hepatitis C | Viral Hepatitis Surveillance Report | CDC.             https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/statistics/2020surveillance/hepatitis-c.htm

CDC. (2023, July 18). Viral Hepatitis Surveillance and Case Management—Hepatitis C | CDC.             https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/statistics/surveillanceguidance/HepatitisC.htm

Day, E., Hellard, M., Treloar, C., Bruneau, J., Martin, N. K., Øvrehus, A., Dalgard, O., Lloyd,     A., Dillon, J., Hickman, M., Byrne, J., Litwin, A., Maticic, M., Bruggmann, P., Midgard,        H., Norton, B., Trooskin, S., Lazarus, J. V., Grebely, J., & Users (INHSU),  the I. N. on         H. in S. (2019). Hepatitis C elimination among people who inject drugs: Challenges and                  recommendations for action within a health systems framework. Liver International,       39(1), 20– 30. https://doi.org/10.1111/liv.13949

flhealthcharts.gov. (n.d.-a). Hepatitis C, Acute—Florida Health CHARTS – Florida Department   of Health | CHARTS. Retrieved October 13, 2023, from https://www.flhealthcharts.gov/ChartsDashboards/rdPage.aspx?rdReport=NonVitalIndNo      Grp.Da taviewer&cid=8651

flhealthcharts.gov. (n.d.-b). Hepatitis C, Chronic (Including Perinatal)—Florida Health   CHARTS – Florida Department of Health | CHARTS. Retrieved October 13, 2023, from             https://www.flhealthcharts.gov/ChartsDashboards/rdPage.aspx?rdReport=NonVitalIndNo            Grp.Dataviewer&cid=8660

Khorvash, F., Ataei, B., Baghersad, Z., &Boroumandfar, Z. (2022). Effectiveness of the   Educational-Supportive Program to Improve the Quality of Life Among Patients with   Hepatitis C virus (HCV): A Quasi-Experimental Study. Jundishapur Journal of Health  Sciences, 14(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.5812/jjhs-121626

Liu, H.-Y., Lin, Y.-H., Lin, P.-J., Tsai, P.-C., Liu, S.-F., Huang, Y.-C., Tsai, J.-J., Huang, C.-I.,    Yeh, M.-L., Liang, P.-C., Lin, Z.-Y., Dai, C.-Y., Huang, J.-F., Chuang, W.-L., Huang, C.-        F., & Yu, M.-L. (2021). Anti-HCV antibody titer highly predicts HCV viremia in patients    with hepatitis B virus dual-infection. PLOS ONE, 16(7), e0254028.            https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254028

Mukhtar, N. A., Ness, E. M., Jhaveri, M., Fix, O. K., Hart, M., Dale, C., Pratt, C., &Kowdley, K.             V. (2019). Epidemiologic features of a large hepatitis C cohort evaluated in a major   health system in the western United States. Annals of Hepatology, 18(2), 360–365.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aohep.2018.12.003

Parsons, G. (2022). Hepatitis C: Epidemiology, transmission and presentation. Prescriber, 33(6),             20–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/psb.1992

Roebuck, M. C. (2019).Assessing the Burden of Illness of Chronic Hepatitis C and Impact of       Direct-Acting Antiviral Use on Healthcare Costs in Medicaid.

Ryerson, A. B., Schillie, S., Barker, L. K., Kupronis, B. A., &Wester, C. (2020). Vital Signs:       Newly Reported Acute and Chronic Hepatitis C Cases ― United States, 2009–2018.        Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(14), 399–404.       https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6914a2

WHO. (2023). Hepatitis C. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-c             

Yang, J., Qi, J.-L., Wang, X.-X., Li, X.-H., Jin, R., Liu, B.-Y., Liu, H.-X., & Rao, H.-Y. (2023). The burden of hepatitis C virus in the world, China, India, and the United States from 1990 to 2019. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1041201.   https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1041201